RURAL  TEXT-BOOK 
SERIES 


\ 


FIELD  CROPS 

FOR  THE 
COTTON-BELT 


MORGAN 


L.  H.  BAI  LEY 
EDITOR 


Agric.-Forestr 


AGRIC. 

LIBRARY 


IRural  ZTexWBoofe  Series 

EDITED  BY  L.  H.  BAILEY 


FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


3&urai  EexklSooft  Series 

EDITED  BY  L.  H.  BAILEY 

Carleton,  THE  SMALL  GRAINS. 

B.  M.  Duggar,  PLANT  PHYSIOLOGY,  with 
special  reference  to  Plant  Production. 

J.  F.  Duggar,  SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS. 

Gayj  THE  BREEDS  OF  LIVE-STOCK. 

Gay,  THE  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF 
JUDGING  LIVE-STOCK. 

Goff,  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  PLANT  CULTURE, 
Revised. 

Harper,  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  FOR  SCHOOLS. 

Harris  and  Stewart,  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF 
AGRONOMY. 

Hitchcock,  A  TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES. 

Jeffery,  TEXT-BOOK  OF  LAND  DRAINAGE. 

Livingston,  FIELD  CROP  PRODUCTION. 

Lyon,  Pippin  and  Buckman,  SOILS  —  THEIR 
PROPERTIES  AND  MANAGEMENT. 

Mann,  BEGINNINGS  IN  AGRICULTURE. 

Montgomery,  THE  CORN  CROPS. 

Piper,  FORAGE  PLANTS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 

Warren,  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Warren,  FARM  MANAGEMENT. 

Wheeler,  MANURES  AND  FERTILIZERS. 

White,  PRINCIPLES  OF  FLORICULTURE. 

Widtsoe,  PRINCIPLES  OF  IRRIGATION  PRAC- 
TICE. 


FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE 
COTTON-BELT 


BY 
JAMES  OSCAR  MORGAN,  M.  S.  A.,  PH.  D. 

PROFESSOR  OF  AGRONOMY  IN  THE 
AGRICULTURAL  AND  MECHANICAL  COLLEGE  OF  TEXAS 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 
1917 

All  rights  reserved 


AGRIC. 
LIBRARY 


" 

COPYRIGHT,  1917 
BY  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  January,  1917 


• 


s      '"* 


MY   PARENTS 

JAMES  WILSON  MORGAN 

AND 

ORRIE  OSGOOD  MORGAN 

THIS  BOOK 

IS  AFFECTIONATELY  DEDICATED  IN  APPRECIATION 
OF  THEIR  HIGH  CHRISTIAN  IDEALS 


355484 


PREFACE 

CLIMATIC  conditions  in  the  cotton-belt  states  are  mark- 
edly different,  in  many  respects,  from  those  in  any  other 
large  area  of  the  United  States.  For  this  reason  the  prac- 
tices involved  in  the  production  of  field  crops  in  the  cotton- 
belt  present  many  modifications  of  those  of  other  regions. 
In  the  preparation  of  this  volume  the  author  has  endeav- 
ored to  present  clearly  and  accurately  the  science  and  art 
of  field-crop  production  in  the  south.  As  the  art  of  crop 
production  is  based  primarily  on  the  sciences  of  botany 
(physiological  and  ecological)  and  chemistry,  the  aim  has 
been  to  give  to  these  subjects  their  proper  application. 

Although  this  book  will  be  of  much  service  to  farmers 
and  general  readers,  it  has  been  written  primarily  with 
the  needs  of  the  college  student  in  view.  Considerable 
attention  has  been  given  to  the  principles  of  plant  struc- 
ture and  nutrition,  particularly  with  reference  to  cotton 
and  corn,  the  two  leading  crops  in  the  cotton-belt.  The 
student  who  is  unfamiliar  with  the  crop  and  its  life- 
processes  is  ill-prepared  for  a  proper  study  of  the  tillage 
practices  involved  in  the  production  of  the  crop. 

The  author  wishes  to  acknowledge  here  his  indebtedness 
to  S.  A.  McMillan  for  many  helpful  suggestions  in  pre- 
paring this  volume,  and  to  A.  B.  Conner,  F.  H.  Blodgett, 

vii 


viii  PREFACE 

F.  B.  Paddock,  J.  B.  Bagley,  and  W.  H.  Thomas  for  reading 
the  manuscript  for  certain  chapters.  Drawings  for  several 
of  the  illustrations  have  been  made  by  G.  A.  Geist  and 
W.  J.  Skeeler.  Credit  is  given  for  each  illustration,  not 
original,  in  the  list  of  illustrations. 

J.  0.  MORGAN. 

COLLEGE  STATION,  TEXAS, 
Nov.  1,  1916. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I 

CLASSIFICATION  AND  VALUE  OF  FIELD  CROPS 

Classification  by  use,  1 ;  Classification  for  the  study 
of  cropping  systems,  2;  Important  botanical  groups,  3. 
Value  of  Field  Crops:  Rank  of  the  cotton-belt  states, 
4;  Importance  of  field  crops  in  the  cotton-belt,  5. 

CHAPTER  II 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  COTTON  PLANT  .... 
The  root-system,  6;  Types  of  roots,  7;  Functions  of 
the  root-system,  8;  The  stem,  9;  The  branches,  10; 
The  leaves,  11;  The  vascular  system,  12;  Air  cavities, 
13;  The  peduncles,  14;  The  flowers,  15;  The  bolls,  16; 
Number  of  bolls  to  the  plant,  17;  The  seed,  18;  The 
lint,  19;  Length  and  strength  of  fiber,  20. 

CHAPTER  III 

PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  COTTON  PLANT 

The  plant  structure,  21;  The  living  substance  in  the 
plant,  22.  The  Composition  of  the  Cotton  Plant:  Com- 
position, 23;  The  essential  constituents,  24.  Nutri- 
tion: The  absorption  of  food,  25;  The  taking  up  of 
carbon,  26;  The  necessary  energy,  27.  The  Giving 
off  of  Water:  28.  Reproduction:  The  reproductive  or- 
gans, 29;  The  pollen-grains  and  egg-cells,  30;  Fer- 
tilization, 31;  The  embryo,  32. 

CHAPTER  IV 

THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  COTTON       .        ' . 

Malvaceae  or  mallow  family,  33;  The  genus  Gos- 
sypium,  34;  Number  of  species,  35;  Classification  of 


PAGE 
1-6 


8^20 


21-29 


30-37 


x  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

species,  36;  The  extensively  cultivated  species,  37; 
American  upland  cotton,  38;  Sea  Island  cotton,  39; 
Peruvian  cotton,  40;  Indian  cotton,  41;  Bengal  cot- 
ton, 42. 

CHAPTER  V 

COTTON  VARIETIES      .         .         .         .         .         .  38-52 

What  is  a  variety,  43;  Origin  of  varieties,  44;  Sta- 
bility of  varieties,  45;  Influence  of  soil  and  climate, 
46;  Classification  of  varieties,  47;  Cluster  type,  48; 
Semi-cluster  type,  49;  Rio  Grande  type,  50;  Early 
varieties  of  the  King  type,  51;  The  Big-boll  type,  52; 
The  long-limbed  type,  53;  Intermediate  varieties,  54; 
Long-staple  upland  varieties,  55;  High  ranking  vari- 
eties, 56. 

CHAPTER  VI 

COTTON  BREEDING       .         .      :,  . ;    .  .  v     .      .'..   ,      .         53-66 

Reasons  for  breeding  cotton,  57;  Need  of  improve- 
ment in  cotton,  58;  Start  with  the  best  variety,  59; 
Qualities  sought  for  in  breeding  cotton,  60;  Qualities 
associated  with  high  yield,  61;  Characters  that  deter- 
mine quality,  62;  Well  denned  ideal  necessary,  63; 
Methods  of  improving  cotton,  64.  The  Improvement 
of  Cotton  by  Selection:  Selection  of  foundation  stock, 
65;  Ginning  cotton  from  select  plants,  66;  Testing 
transmitting  power  of  plants,  67;  Selecting  the  best 
progenies,  68;  Making  the  second  generation  selec- 
tions, 69;  The  multiplication  plot,  70;  Influence  of  en- 
vironment, 71.  The  Use  of  Hybridization  in  Cotton 
Breeding:  Reasons  for  hybridizing  cotton,  72;  The  na- 
ture of  hybrids,  73;  Fixation  of  cotton-hybrids,  74; 
Methods  of  crossing  cotton,  75;  Hybridization  versus 
selection,  76;  Acclimatization,  77. 

CHAPTER  VII 

COTTON  SOILS  AND  CLIMATIC  ADAPTATIONS     .  67-80 

Cotton  Soils:  Soil  types,  78;  Cotton  soils  of  the 
Coastal  Plain  Province,  79;  Cotton  soils  of  the 


CONTENTS  xi 

PAGE 

Piedmont  Plateau,  80;  Cotton  soils  of  the  Appalachian 
Province,  81;  Cotton  soils  of  the  limestone  valleys 
and  uplands,  82;  Cotton  soils  of  the  Loessial  region, 
83;  Cotton  soils  of  the  River  Flood  Plains  Province, 
84;  Cotton  soils  of  the  Great  Plains  Region,  85. 
Climatic  Adaptations:  Length  of  growing  season,  86; 
Amount  and  distribution  of  the  rainfall,  87;  Tem- 
perature and  sunshine,  88. 

CHAPTER  VIII 

FERTILIZERS,  MANURES  AND  ROTATIONS  FOR  COTTON      .       81-100 

Fertility  removed  by  cotton,  89;  Maintenance 
of  fertility,  90.  Commercial  Fertilizers  for  Cotton: 
Nitrogen-supplying  fertilizers,  91;  Sodium  nitrate 
versus  cotton-seed  meal,  92;  Cotton-seed  versus  cotton- 
seed meal,  93;  Need  of  cotton  soils  for  nitrogen,  94; 
Phosphatic  fertilizers,  95;  Need  of  cotton  soils  for 
phosphoric  acid,  96;  Potassic  fertilizers,  97;  Need  of 
cotton  soils  for  potash,  98;  Potash  fertilizers  check 
rust,  99;  A  fertilizer  test  for  cotton,  100;  Judging  fer-  \ 
"*•  tilizer  ne&ls  by  appearance  of  plants,  101;  Home- 
mixing  fertilizers,  102;  Time  of  applying  fertilizers, 
103;  Methods  of  applying  fertilizers,  104;  Fertilizer 
formulas  for  cotton,  105.  Farm  Manures  for  Cotton: 
Stable  manure  for  cotton,  106;  Composts  for  cotton, 
107.  Green-Manures  and  Rotations  for  Cotton:  Need 
of  organic  matter,  108;  Suitable  crops  for  green- 
manure,  109;  Green-manures  and  the  supply  of  or- 
ganic matter,  110;  Green-manure  crops  and  the  nitro- 
gen supply,  111;  Will  crop  rotation  maintain  fertility, 
112;  Rotations  for  cotton,  113. 

CHAPTER  IX 

TILLAGE  FOR  COTTON 101-116 

Preparation  of  the  Seed-bed:  Drainage  the  first  es- 
sential, 114;  Disposal  of  stalks  and  litter,  115;  Fall 
plowing  for  cotton,  116;  Spring  plowing  for  cotton,  • 


xii  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

117;  Depth  of  plowing,  118;  Subsoiling,  119;  Subse- 
quent tillage,  120;  Ridging  versus  level  preparation, 
121;  Forming  the  ridges,  122.  Planting:  Time  of 
planting,  123;  Advantage  of  planting  heavy  seed, 
124;  Quantity  of  seed,  125;  Methods  of  planting,  126; 
Cultivation:  Objects  of  interculture,  127;  Broadcast 
tillage  for  cotton,  128;  Tillage  by  separate  rows,  129; 
The  first  cultivation,  130;  Chopping,  131;  The  second 
cultivation,  132;  Subsequent  culture,  133;  Frequency 
of  tillage,  134;  The  value  of  late  tillage,  135;  Distance 
between  rows,  136;  Distance  between  plants  in  the 
row,  137. 

CHAPTER  X 

HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING  COTTON  .         .  ,  *,/        .     117-126 

Picking,  138;  Cotton-picking  machines,  139;  Gin- 
ning, 140;  Types  of 'cotton  gins,  141;  Baling,  142; 
Care  of  baled  cotton,  143;  Compressing,  144.  Selec- 
tion and  Classification  of  Commercial  Grades  of  Cotton: 
Important  points  in  cotton  valuing,  145;  Grade,  146; 
Relative  values  of  different  grades,  147;  Staple,  148. 

CHAPTER  XI 

SOME  IMPORTANT  INSECT  ENEMIES  OF  COTTON        .         .     127-140 

The  Mexican  Cotton  Boll-weevil:  Life  history  and 
habits,  149;  Food  of  the  weevil,  150;  Rate  of  increase, 
151;  Dissemination,  152;  Hibernation,  153;  Drain- 
age, 154;  Means  of  control,  155;  Destroy  cotton 
stalks  early  in  fall,  156;  Destroy  weevils  in  hibernat- 
ing places,  157;  Make  provision  for  an  early  crop, 
'  158;  Proper  spacing  of  plants,  159.  The  Cotton  Boll- 
worm:  Description,  160;  Life  history,  161;  Food 
plants,  162;  Damage,  163;  Means  of  control,  164. 
The  Cotton  Leaf -worm:  Life  history  and  habits,  165; 
Damage,  166;  Means  of  control,  167.  Insects  of 
Secondary  Importance:  The  cotton  leaf-louse,  168; 
The  cotton  red-spider,  169;  The  cowpea  pod-weevil, 
•  170. 


CONTENTS 
CHAPTER  XII 

DISEASES  OF  COTTON  ...... 

Cotton  Wilt:  Occurrence,  171;  Cause,  172;  Symp- 
toms, 173;  Remedies,  174.  Cotton  Root-rot:  Occur- 
rence, 175;  Cause,  176;  Symptoms,  177;  Remedies, 
178.  Rqot-knot:  Occurrence,  179;  Cause,  180;  Symp- 
toms, 181;  Remedy,  182.  Cotton  Anthracnose:  Oc- 
currence, 183;  Cause,  184;  Symptoms,  185;  Remedies, 
186.  Mosaic  Disease:  Occurrence,  187;  Cause,  188; 
Symptoms,  189;  Remedies,  190. 

CHAPTER  XIII 

MAIZE  oft  INDIAN  CORN      ...... 

Description  of  the  Corn  Plant:  The  root-system,  191 ; 
Structure  of  roots,  192;  Adventitious  roots,  193; 
Stems,  194;  Structure  of  the  stem,  195;  Tillers,  196; 
Leaves,  197;  The  flower,  198;  The  pistillate  flowers, 
199;  The  ear,  200;  The  kernels,  201. 


Xlll 


PAGE 

141-149 


150-160 


CHAPTER  XIV 

PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  CORN  PLANT        ....     161-172 

Composition  of  the  Corn  Plant:  Composition,  202. 
Water  Requirements:  Leaf  surface,  203;  Figuring  the 
leaf  surface  of  a  corn  plant,  204;  Conditions  affecting 
water  requirements,  205;  Amount  of  water  required, 
206.  Growth:  Growth,  207;  The  factors  of  growth, 
208;  The  growth  of  roots,  209;  Growth  of  stems,  210; 
Growth  of  leaves,  211.  Reproduction:  Fertilization, 
212;  Double  fertilization,  213;  Development  of  the 
ear,  214. 

CHAPTER  XV 

ORIGIN,  CLASSIFICATION  AND  VARIETIES  OF  CORN     .      .     173-186 

Nativity,  215;  Biological  origin,  216.  Classifica- 
tion of  Maize:  Zea  Mays  canina,  217;  Zea  Mays 
tunicata  or  pod  corn,  218;  Zea  Mays  everata,  the 
pop-corns,  219;  Zea  Mays  indurata,  the  flint  corns, 


xiv  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

220;  Zea  Mays  indentata,  the  dent  corns,  221;  Zea 
Mays  amylacea,  the  soft  corns,  222;  Zea  Mays  sac- 
charata,  the  sweet  corns,  223;  Zea  Mays  amylea- 
saccharata,  224;  Zea  Mays  japonica,  225;  Zea  Mays 
hirta,  226;  Varieties,  227;  Discussion  of  varieties,  228. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

THE  BREEDING  OF  CORN     .  .  .  187-210 

The  significance  of  type  in  corn  breeding,  229;  De- 
fects in  southern  varieties,  230;  Barren  plants,  231; 
Tendency  to  sucker,  232;  Methods  of  improving  corn, 
233.  Selection:  Start  with  the  best  variety,  234;  Mass 
selection,  235;  Value  of  mass  selection,  236;  Pedigree 
selection,  237;  The  initial  choice  of  ears  in  the  field, 
238;  Selecting  the  breeding  plot,  239;  Second  year, 
240;  Cultivation,  241;  Detasseling,  242;  Harvesting, 
243;  Third  year,  244;  Breeding  for  high  and  low  ears, 
245;  Breeding  for  composition,  246;  Other  effects  of 
breeding  for  composition,  247;  Objects  of  breeding 
for  composition,  248.  Hybridization:  Objects  of  hy- 
bridization, 249;  Degrees  of  relationship  among  corn 
plants,  250;  The  transmission  of  characters — Men- 
del's law,  251;  Dominant  qualities  in  corn-hybrids, 
252;  Effects  of  inbreeding,  253;  Value  of  crossing 
varieties,  254;  Method  of  producing  cross-bred  seed, 
255. 

CHAPTER  XVII 

SOIL  AND  CLIMATIC  ADAPTATIONS  OF  CORN  .         .     211-216 

~Soil  Adaptations:  Soils  adapted  to  corn,  256;  Soils 
not  adapted  to  corn,  257;  Modification  of  soils  for 
corn,  258;  Soil  type  and  crop  variety,  259.  Climatic 
Adaptations:  Factors  of  climate,  260;  Influence  of 
rainfall,  261;  Influence  of  sunshine,  262;  Influence  of 
temperature,  263;  Length  of  growing  season,  264;  In- 
fluence of  climate  upon  habit  of  growth,  265. 


CONTENTS 
CHAPTER  XVIII 

CROPPING  SYSTEMS,  MANURES  AND  FERTILIZERS  FOR  CORN 
Cropping  Systems  for  Corn:  Continuous  corn  cul- 
ture impoverishes  soil,  266;  The  place  of  corn  in  a 
rotation,  267;  Suggested  rotations  for  the  cotton- 
belt,  268.  Manures  and  Fertilizers  for  Corn:  Manures, 
269;  Lime  for  com,  270;  Fertilizers  for  corn,  271; 
Plant-food  removed  by  corn,  272;  Soils  and  fer- 
tilizers, 273;  Relative  importance  of  fertilizing  con- 
stituents, 274;  When  to  apply  fertilizers,  275;  Method 
of  applying  fertilizers,  276;  Fertilizer  formulas  for 
corn,  277;  Some  general  principles,  278. 


XV 


PAGE 
217-229 


CHAPTER  XIX 

PREPARING  THE  SEED-BED  FOR  CORN  . 

Plowing  the  Land:  Destroying  the  stalks,  279;  Time 
of  plowing,  280;  Depth  of  plowing,  281;  Covering 
rubbish,  282;  Subsoiling,  283.  Preparation  of  Plowed 
Land:  Treatment  of  plowed  land,  284;  The  disk- 
harrow,  285;  The  smoothing  harrow,  286;  Special 
harrows,  287;  Sub-surface  packers,  288;  Ridging  corn 
land,  289;  Wide  beds  for  corn,  290. 


230-237 


CHAPTER  XX 

PLANTING  AND  CULTIVATING  THE  CORN  CROP  .  .  . 
Planting  the  Seed:  Testing  the  seed,  291 ;  Methods 
of  planting  corn,  292;  Time  of  planting,  293;  Depth 
of  planting,  294;  Importance  of  getting  a  stand,  295; 
Distance  between  rows  and  hills,  296.  Cultivating 
the  Crop:  The  objects  of  interculture,  297:  Importance 
of  thorough  early  cultivation,  298;  Cultivation  by 
separate  rows,  299;  Depth  and  frequency  of  cultiva- 
tion, 300;  Value  of  late  cultivation,  301;  Kinds  of 
cultivators,  302;  The  Mclver  Williamson  method  of 
corn  production,  303. 


238-250 


XVI 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  XXI 


HARVESTING  AND  STORING  THE  CORN  CROP 

Harvesting  Corn:  Time  of  harvesting,  304;  Methods 
of  harvesting,  305;  Effect  of  method  of  harvesting 
on  yield  of  grain,  306;  Yields  of  forage  by  different 
methods  of  harvesting  corn,  307;  Cutting  and  shock- 
ing the  entire  plant,  308;  Harvesting  the  ears  only, 
309;  Hand  methods  of  cutting  corn,  310;  Comparative 
cost  of  harvesting  by  different  methods,  311;  Corn 
harvesting  machinery,  312;  Shocking  corn,  313; 
Husking  corn,  314;  Shredding  corn,  315.  Storing 
Corn:  Cribs,  316;  Shrinkage  of  stored  corn,  317; 
Measuring  corn  in  the  crib,  318. 


PAGE 
251-263 


CHAPTER  XXII 

ANIMAL  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES  AND  FUNGOUS  DISEASES  OP 
CORN.          .         .         .         .        '.,        . 

Animal  Enemies:  Treatment,  319.  Insect  Enemies: 
Causes,  320;  Corn  bud-worms,  321;  Cut-worms,  322; 
Wire-worms,  323;  The  corn  ear-worm,  324;  Chinch 
bugs,  325;  Grain  moths  and  weevils,  326.  Fungous 
Diseases:  Corn-smut,  327. 


264-271 


CHAPTER  XXIII    i 


OATS 


Origin  and  botanical  classification,  328.  Structure 
and  Composition  of  the  Oats:  The  plant,  329;  The  pan- 
icle, 330;  The  spikelets,  331;  Pollination,  332;  The 
grain,  333;  Composition,  334.  Varieties  of  Oats: 
Classification,  335;  Varieties  grown  in  the  cotton- 
belt,  336;  Red  Rust-proof  oats,  337;  Burt  oats,  338; 
Turf  oats,  339;  Beardless  red  oats,  340.  Improve- 
ment of  Varieties:  Need  of  improvement,  ,341 ;  Intro- 
duction of  new  seed,  342;  Mechanical  selection,  343; 
The  seed-plot,  344;  The  isolation  of  elementary 
species,  345;  Improvement  by  hybridization,  346. 


272-284 


CONTENTS 
CHAPTER  XXIV 

OATS — CLIMATE,  SOILS,  TILLAGE  PRACTICES  AND  USES 

Climate,  347;  Soils,  348;  Fertilizers  and  manures, 
349;  Place  in  the  rotation,  350;  Preparation  of  the 
seed-bed,  351;  Time  of  seeding,  352;  Methods  of  seed- 
ing, 353;  The  open-furrow  method  of  seeding,  354; 
Rate  of  seeding,  355;  Subsequent  care,  356.  Uses  of 
oats:  Grain  as  food,  357;  Oat  straw,  358;  Oat  hay,  359; 
Oats  for  pasture  and  soiling,  360. 

CHAPTER  XXV 

OATS — HARVESTING,  MARKETING,  INSECT  ENEMIES  AND 
DISEASES         ........ 

Time  of  cutting,  361;  Shocking,  362;  Stacking, 
363 ;  Thrashing  and  storing,  364.  Marketing:  Bleached 
oats,  365;  Market  grades  of  oats,  366.  Insect  enemies: 
367.  Fungous  diseases:  Oat  rust,  368;  Oat  smut,  369; 
The  hot-water  treatment,  370. 

CHAPTER  XXVI 

WHEAT 

Antiquity  of  wheat,  371;  Nativity,  372;  Biological 
origin,  373;  Botanical  classification,  374.  Structure 
and  Composition  of  Wheat:  Roots,  375;  Culms,  376; 
Tillering,  377;  Leaves,  378;  The  spike,  379;  The 
spikelets,  380;  Fertilization,  381;  The  grain,  382; 
Composition,  383.  Types  and  Varieties  of  Wheat: 
Botanical  classification  of  wheat  types,  384;  Einkorn, 
385;  Spelt,  386;  Emmer,  387;  Common  wheat,  388; 
Club  wheat,  389;  Poulard  wheat,  390;  Durum  wheat, 
391;  Polish  wheat,  392;  Wheat  varieties,  393;  Varie- 
ties for  the  cotton-belt,  394;  Wheat-growing  areas  of 
the  cotton-belt,  395;  Improvement  of  varieties,  396. 

CHAPTER  XXVII 

WHEAT — CLIMATE,  SOILS,  ROTATIONS,  CULTURAL  METH- 
ODS AND  HARVESTING 


XVll 


PAGE 

285-295 


296-304 


305-322 


323-333 


XV111 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 


Climate,  397;  Soils,  398;  Rotations,  399;  Fer- 
tilizers, 400.  Cultural  Methods:  Preparing  the  seed- 
bed, 401;  Date  of  seeding,  402;  Rate  of  seeding,  403; 
Methods  of  seeding,  404;  Wheat  seeding  machinery, 
405;  Cultivating  wheat,  406;  Pasturing  wheat,  407. 
Harvesting  Wheat:  Methods,  408;  When  to  harvest, 
409;  Methods  of  handling  as  related  to  quality  of 
grain,  410. 

CHAPTER  XXVIII 

WHEAT — WEEDS,  INSECT  ENEMIES  AND  FUNGOUS  DIS- 
EASES     .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .'     "  ',. 

Weeds,  411;  Insect  enemies,  412;  Hessian  fly,  413; 
Chinch-bugs,  414;  Fungous  diseases,  415;  Loose  smut, 
416;  Covered  smut,  stinking  smut  or  bunt,  417. 


334-340 


CHAPTER  XXIX 


RYE 


Origin  and  nativity,  418;  Description,  419;  Com- 
position, 420;  Varieties,  421;  Climate,  422;  Soils  and 
fertilizers,  423;  Rotations,  424;  Seed,  425;  Culture, 
426;  Harvesting  and  handling,  427;  Enemies,  428. 


341-346 


CHAPTER  XXX 


BARLEY 


Nativity,  429;  Description,  430;  Composition,  431; 
Types  of  barley,  432;  Climate,  433;  Soils,  fertilizers 
and  rotations,  434;  Sowing,  435;  Harvesting,  436; 
Enemies,  437. 


CHAPTER  XXXI 


RICE 


Structure,  438;  Composition,  439;  Varieties,  440; 
Upland  rice,  441;  Climatic  adaptations,  442;  Irriga- 
tion, 443;  Rice-growing  sections,  444;  Drainage,  445; 
Soils,  rotations  and  fertilizers,  446;  Preparation  of 


347-353 


354-371 


CONTENTS 


the  seed-bed,  447;  Planting,  448;  Irrigation  prac- 
tices, 449;  Harvesting,  450;  Thrashing,  451;  Yield, 
452.  Preparation  and  Uses  of  Rice;  Cleaned  rice, 
453;  Classification  of  rice  products,  454;  Uses,  455. 
Enemies  of  Rice:  Weeds,  456;  Insects,  457;  Fungous 
diseases,  458. 


XIX 

/ 
PAGE 


CHAPTER  XXXII 

THE  SORGHUMS  .         .         .         . 

Biological  origin,  459;  Geographical  origin,  460; 
Botanical  classification,  461;  Root-system,  462; 
Tillers  and  branches,  463;  Drought  resistance,  464; 
Effects  on  the  soil,  465;  Fertilization  and  crossing, 
466;  Breeding,  467;  Sorghum  poisoning,  468. 


372-380 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 

THE  SACCHARINE  SORGHUMS  ..... 
Classification  of  saccharine  sorghums,  469;  Sumac 
sorghum,  470;  Orange  sorghum,  471;  Amber  sorghum, 
472;  Gooseneck  sorghum,  473;  Honey  sorghum,  474; 
Climatic  adaptations,  475;  Soils  and  fertilizers,  476; 
Preparation  of  the  land,  477;  Time,  rate,  and  method 
of  planting,  478;  Cultivation,  479;  Harvesting,  480; 
Manufacturing  the  sirup,  481;  Yield,  482;  Enemies, 
483. 


381-388 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 

THE  NON-SACCHARINE  SORGHUMS  .... 
The  grain-sorghum  belt,  484;  Groups  of  non-sac- 
charine sorghums,  485;  Kafir,  486;  Durra,  487;  Shallu, 
488;  Kowliang,  489;  Broom-corn,  490;  Culture  of  the 
grain  sorghums,  491;  Time,  rate  and  method  of  seed- 
ing, 492;  Cultivation,  493;  Harvesting  the  grain- 


389-400 


XX 


CONTENTS 


sorghums,  494;  Culture  of  broom-corn,  495;  Har- 
vesting broom-corn,  496. 


PAGE 


CHAPTER  XXXV 

SUGAR-CANE        ........ 

Nativity,  497.  Description:  The  plant,  498;  Roots, 
499;  The  leaves,  500;  Inflorescence,  501;  The  stem, 
502;  Structure  of  the  stem,  503;  Amount  and  distri- 
bution of  juice,  504;  Composition  of  the  juice,  505; 
Conditions  affecting  the  composition  of  the  juice,  506; 
Relative  composition  of  cane  in  the  Louisiana  sugar- 
belt  and  in  the  coastal  pine-belt,  507.  Varieties  and 
Improvement  of  Sugar-cane:  Varieties,  508;  Japanese 
sugar-cane,  509;  Improvement,  510. 


401-411 


CHAPTER  XXXVI 

SUGAR-CANE — CLIMATE,  SOILS,  ROTATIONS,  FERTILIZERS 
AND  TILLAGE  PRACTICES  ..... 
Climate,  511;  Soils,  512;  Rotations,  513;  Fertilizers, 
514;  Fertilizers  for  cane  in  the  pine-belt,  516.  Tillage 
Practices:  Preparation  of  the  land,  517;  Time  of 
planting,  518;  Method  of  planting,  519;  Keeping  seed- 
cane  over  winter,  520;  Cultivation,  521. 


412-422 


CHAPTER  XXXVII 

SUGAR-CANE — HARVESTING,    USES,    INSECT   PESTS    AND 
DISEASES         ........ 

Harvesting:  Time  of  harvesting,  522;  Stripping, 
topping,  and  cutting,  523;  Handling  the  harvested 
cane,  524;  Yields,  525;  Uses,  526.  Insect  Pests:  The 
sugar-cane  borer,  527;  The  southern  grass  worm,  528. 
Fungous  Diseases:  Origin,  529;  Red-rot  of •  sugar-cane, 
530;  The  rind  disease,  531;  The  pineapple  disease, 
532;  The  root-rot  disease,  533. 


423-429 


CONTENTS  xxi 

CHAPTER  XXXVIII  PAGE 

PEANUT 430-442 

Nativity,  534;  Distribution,  535;  Description,  536; 
Composition,  537;  Varieties,  538;  Improvement  of 
varieties,  539.  Culture  of  Peanuts:  Soil,  540;  Rota- 
tions, 541;  Lime  for  peanuts,  542;  Fertilizers,  543; 
The  use  of  stable  manure,  544;  Preparing  the  seed-bed, 
545;  Planting,  546;  Cultivation,  547;  Harvesting. 
548;  Stacking,  549;  Picking,  550. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PIG.  PAGE 

1.  Diagram  showing  relative  value  of  field  crops  in  United 

States  and  in  cotton-belt         .....         5 

2.  Diagram  showing  the  total  value  of  all  crops  and  the  rela- 

tive value  of  the  leading  crops  for  each  state  in  the 
cotton-belt 7 

3.  Stalk  of  Lone  Star  upland  cotton,  with  (a)  vegetative  and 

(b)  fruiting  branches  from  the  same  node.     (U.  S. 
Dept.  Agr.) 13 

4.  Flower  of  upland  cotton,  from  the  side,  showing  the  posi- 

tion of  the  small  calyx-lobe  opposite  the  smallest 
bract  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.)  ....       15 

5.  Bracts  of  upland  cotton  inclosing  bud,  showing  twisted 

teeth  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.)  .  .  15 

6.  Stamens  and  stigmas  of  Egyptian  cotton.     (U.  S.  Dept. 

Agr.) ...       16 

7.  Cotton-producing  areas  of  the  world.    (AfterTodd.)  .          .       34 

8.  Plant  of  the  Jackson  Limbless  variety  of  cotton,  repre- 

senting the  Cluster  group  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.)     .          .       41 

9.  Plant  of  the  Hawkins  variety  of  cotton,  representing  the 

Semicluster  group  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.)         ...       42 

10.  Plant  of  the  Peterkin  variety  of  cotton,  representing  the 

Peterkin  group  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.)    ....       43 

11.  Plant  of  the  Shine  variety  of  cotton,  representing  the  Early 

group  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) 44 

12.  Plant  of  the  Truitt  variety  of  cotton,  representing  the  Big- 

boll  group  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.)  ....       45 

13.  Plant  of  the  Allen  variety  of  cotton,  representing  the  upland 

long-staple  group  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.)  ...       47 

14.  Cotton  seeds  with  fibers  attached.    (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.)       .       57 

15.  Outfit  used  in  crossing  cotton;  also  buds  showing  the  steps 

hi  emasculation  and  a  boll  three  days  after  pollination 

(Ga.  Station) 65 

xxiii 


xxiv  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

16.  Average  length  of  the  crop-growing  season  in  days  (U.  S. 

Weather  Bureau)  ......       78 

17.  Interior  view  of  a  one-seed  drop  cotton  planter  (B.  F. 

Avery  &  Sons  Plow  Co.)          .  .          .          .111 

18.  Adult  boll-weevil  showing  characteristic  teeth  on  front  legs 

which  serve  to   distinguish   this  insect  from  other 
weevils  (Paddock)  ......     127 

19.  Showing  variation  in  size  of  boll-weevils  (Paddock) .          .     128 

20.  Root  distribution  of  corn  at  silking  time  (U.  S.  Dept. 

Agr.)    .          .    .    ".         Vv 152 

21.  Structure   of   corn   plant  at  different  stages  of   growth 

(after  Bull)   ....         .         .         .  .155 

22.  Ear  of  corn  showing  tendency  to  laminate  (after  Harsh- 

berger)          .  .     158 

23.  Botanical  parts  of  the  corn  kernel  and  its  integuments 

(after  Harshberger)       *.          .          .          .  .159 

24.  Cross  section  of  the  outer  portion  of  a  grain  of  corn  (after 

Webber) 160 

25.  Illustrating  development  of  corn  stem  (after  Montgomery) .      167 

26.  Illustrating  the  process  of  fertilization  of  the  corn  flower 

(after  Montgomery)        ......     169 

27.  Illustrating  structure  of  corn  kernel  at  pollination  (after 

Crosthwait)  .      ;  ; 170 

28.  Cross-section  of  corn  ear  looking  toward  the  base  (after 

Winton) 171 

29.  Illustrating  the  relationship  between  gama  grass,  teosinte, 

and  corn  (after  Montgomery)           .          .          .          .  175 

30.  A  small  ear  of  the  pod-corn  group           ....  178 

31.  An  ear  of  white  rice  pop  corn  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.)       .          .  178 

32.  An  ear  of  White  Pearl  pop  corn  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.)  .         .  179 

33.  A  good  ear  of  the  flint-corn  group  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.)         .  180 

34.  A  good  ear  of  dent  corn  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.)        .         .         .181 

35.  An  ear  of  the  sweet-corn  group      .....  182 

36.  Showing  the  average  angle  of  declination  of  corn  ears  after 

five  generations  of  breeding  for  erect  ears  (111.  Sta- 
tion)              .         .188 

37.  Showing  the  average  angle  of  declination  of  corn  ears  after 

five  generations  of  breeding  for  declining  ears  (111. 
Statio"n) .     189 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xxv 

FIG.  PAGE 

38.  Showing  effect  of  five  generations  of  breeding  for  high  ears 

and  low  ears  (111.  Station)        .  .     199 

39.  Diagram  showing  method  of  producing  cross-bred  seed  of 

corn     .....  .          .  209 

40.  Corn  harvesting  tools   .          .          .          .  .          .  256 

41.  A  corn-shocking  horse  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.)  259 

42.  Illustrating  a  method  of  cutting  and  shocking  checked 

corn  to  economize  steps  (Farmers'  Bulletin,  313)       .     260 

43.  Husking  peg  and  husking  hook  (after  Montgomery)          ",     261 

44.  Ear  of  corn  showing  characteristic  injury  by  the  corn- 

weevil  (Paddock)  .  .  .     269 

45.  Corn  smut  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.)  .     271 

46.  Plats  of  winter  oats  in  November  at  the  Maryland  Agri- 

cultural   Experiment    Station,    College    Park,    Md. 

(U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.)  .     280 

47.  Smut  of  oats,  showing  a  smutted  head  and  for  comparison 

a  sound  oat  head  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.) .  .     303 

48.  Diagrammatic  section  through  the  stem  of  wheat  about  25 

days  after  planting,  (enlarged)  (after  Hayes  and  Boss)     307 

49.  A  wheat  leaf  (after  Hunt)     ....  .308 

50.  Front  and  side  view  of  spikelet  of  wheat  (after  Hunt)         .     309 

51.  Illustrating  the  opening  and  closing  of  the  wheat  flower 

(after  Hayes  and  Boss)  .  .310 

52.  The  reproductive  organs  of  wheat  (after  Hayes  and  Boss)     311 

53.  Cross-section  and  transverse  section  of  a  grain  of  wheat 

(Hunt's  Cereals  in  America,  p.  36)   .  312 

54.  Representative  heads  of  five  varieties  of  hard  winter  and 

hard  spring  wheat  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.)        .  .     316 

55.  Heads  of  some  beardless  winter  varieties  of  wheat  (U.  S. 

Dept.  Agr.)  .  .     317 

56.  Heads  of  some  bearded  winter  wheat  varieties   (U.  S. 

Dept.  Agr.)  .  .     318 

57.  Heads  of  Tennessee  Winter  barley,  side  and  front  views; 

also  detached  kernels  with  the  awns  removed  (U.  S. 
Dept.  Agr.) 348 

58.  A  grain  of  2-rowed  barley  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.)  .  349 

59.  High  grade  barley  grains  with  the  glumes  removed  to  show 

the    embryo   with  its    collar-like    scutellum    (U.    S. 
Dept.  Agr.)  ....  .     349 


xxvi  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

60.  Loose  smut  of  barley,  showing  five  smutted  heads  at  vari- 

ous stages  of  development   and  for   comparison   a 
sound  barley  head  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.)        .         .         .352 

61.  Typical  heads  of  five  varieties  of  rice  together  with  the  un- 

hulled  and  hulled  grains  (Texas  Station)  .          .          .357 

62.  Blue  Rose  rice  (La.  Station) 358 

63.  Two  heads  of  Milo  showing  desirable  form  (on  left)  and 

undesirable  form  (on  right)  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.)      .          .     378 

64.  Three  plants  of  Blackhull  Kafir,  5.5  feet  high,  selected  for 

low  stature  and  high  yielding  power  (U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr.) .379 

65.  A  head  of  Orange  sorghum  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.)          .         .383 

66.  Heads  of  four  varieties  of  Kafir  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.)          .     391 

67.  Milo  heads;  one  pendent,  one  erect  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.)        ,     392 

68.  Milo  seeds,  hulled  and  unhulled  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.)          .     393 

69.  Two  heads  of  shallu  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.)  .       ~".      -    .          .     394 

70.  Broom-corn  fruit  with  chaff  (after  Winton)     .          .          .     396 

71.  A  field  of  sugar-cane  (La.  Station) .          .          ;     •..   .      -  ,.    402 

72.  Spanish  type  of  peanut  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.)       .         ^.         •'.     434 

73.  Commercial  types  of  peanuts  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.)       .          .     435 

74.  Machine  potato  digger  adapted  for  harvesting  peanuts 

(U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.)  .  .          .          .         .         .     441 

75.  Laborer  building  a  stack  of  peanut  vines,  showing  method 

used.    Completed  stacks  in  background  (U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr.)    .          .         .  , ;  ;    .    ,      ,         .         J  --••>  ;      .     442 


FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


FIELD   CROPS   FOR  THE 
COTTON-BELT 

• 

CHAPTER  I 
CLASSIFICATION  AND  VALUE  OF  FIELD  CROPS 

THE  term  " field  crops,"  irr*its  broadest  sense,  includes 
all  crops  grown  in  cultivated  fields  under  an  extensive 
system  of  culture.  Horticultural  crops  may  be  defined 
as  those  crops  which  are  grown  in  relatively  small  areas 
under  systems  of  intensive  culture.  They  are  the  fruits 
and  vegetables.  There  are  some  exceptions  to  this  rule. 
For  example,  sugar-beets  and  tobacco  are  field  crops  that 
require  intensive  culture.  On  the  other  hand,  fruits  and 
vegetables  are  frequently  grown  in  large  areas. 

No  satisfactory  classification  of  field  crops  has,  as  yet, 
been  made,  on  account  of  the  new  uses  to  which  plants 
are  constantly  being  put  and  also  because  one  crop  may 
be  used  for  a  variety  of  purposes.  For  convenience  in 
study  and  in  describing  methods  of  culture,  field  crops 
have  been  grouped  into  several  classes. 

1.  Classification  by  use.  —  According  to  use,  crops  are 
commonly  grouped  as  follows : 

Cereal  or  grain  crops,  as  corn,  wheat,  oats,  rye,  barley, 
and  rice. 

Forage  crops,  including  the  grasses  and  legumes  cut 
for  hay,  fodder,  silage,  or  for  feeding  green. 

Legumes  for  seed,  as  beans,  lentils,  and  peas. 

1 


2  FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

Fiber  crops,  as  cotton,  flax,  and  hemp. 
Root  crops,  as  beets,  turnips,  and  carrots. 
Tubers,  as  Irish  potatoes. 
Sugar  plants,  as  sugar-beets  and  sugar-cane. 
Stimulants,  as  tobacco,  tea,  and  coffee. 

2.  Classification  for  the  study  of  cropping  systems,  — 
For  the  purpose  of  studying  crop  rotation,  field  crops  are 
divided  into  six  general  groups.     These  are  grain  crops, 
grass  crops,  cultivated  crops,  catch-crops,  green-manure 
crops,  and  cover-crops. 

In  this  classification  the  grain  crops  include  all  crops 
that  are  grown  primarily  for  grain  and  receive  no  cultiva- 
tion from  seed  time  until  harvest.  The  grass  crops  include 
those  crops  most  commonly  grown  for  hay,  or  pasture, 
such  as  Bermuda-grass,  timothy,  Kentucky  blue-grass, 
alfalfa,  red  clover,  crimson  clover,  and  the  like.  The 
cultivated  crops,  as  the  name  signifies,  include  all  crops 
so  planted  as  to  permit  or  require  intertillage.  The  term 
"catch-crop"  is  used  to  designate  those  crops  that  are 
used  as  substitutes  for  staple  crops  which,  on  account 
of  unfavorable  conditions,  have  failed  after  being  planted. 
They  are  quick-growing  crops  such  as  millet,  buckwheat, 
rye.  Green-manure  crops  are  crops  that  have  been  planted 
for  the  purpose  of  producing  organic  matter  to  be  plowed 
into  the  soil.  Cover-crops  are  used  to  prevent  erosion 
or  leaching.  In  some  cases  one  crop  may  be  used  for  two 
or  more  of  the  above  purposes. 

3.  Important  botanical  groups.  —  The  classifications 
given  above  are  not  based  on  any  botanical  relationships 
whatever.    With  few  exceptions  the  important  field  crops 
belong  to  two  families,  namely,  the  Gramineae  or  grass 
family   and   the   Leguminosse   or   legume   family.     The 
former  includes  all  of  the  cereals,  except  buckwheat,  and 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  VALUE  OF  FIELD  CROPS    3 


perhaps  three-fourths  of  the  cultivated  forage  crops. 
The  latter  family,  so  called  because  the  seeds,  in  most 
cases,  are  borne  in  a  pod  or  "legume,"  includes  the  true 
clovers,  alfalfa,  the  vetches,  peas,  beans,  and  the  like. 
The  Irish  potato  and  tobacco  belong  to  the  nightshade 
family,  Solanacese,  while  cotton  belongs  to  the  mallow 
family,  Malvaceae. 

VALUE   OF   FIELD   CROPS 

According  to  the  1910  Census,  the  leading  farm  crops 
in  the  United  States  possessed  for  the  year  1909  the  follow- 
ing values : 


MILLIONS 
CROP                  OF 
DOLLARS 

MILLIONS 
CROP                  OF 
DOLLARS 

MILLIONS 
CROP                   OF 
DOLLARS 

l.Corn  1,438 
2.  Hay  and  forage  824 
3.  Cotton  704 
4.  Wheat  658 
5.  Oats  415 

8.  Barley  92 
9.  Sweet  potatoes  35 
10.  Flax  seed  28 

15.  Peanuts               18 

16.  Rice  16 

17.  Dry  peas.  ....    11 
18.  Kafir  &  milo..    11 
19.  Sorghum  10 
20.  Buckwheat  ...     9 

11.  Sugar-cane  ...  26 
12.  Dry  beans.  ...  22 
13.  Rye  20 
14.  Sugar-beets.  .  .    19 

6.  Potatoes  166 
7.  Tobacco  ...      104 

Below  is  given  the  1909  value  of  the  eleven  field  crops 
treated  in  this  text  for  the  cotton-belt  states  only : 


CROP 

MILLIONS 

OF 

DOLLARS 

MILLIONS 
CROP                   OF 
DOLLARS 

MILLIONS 
CROP                  OF 
DOLLARS 

1.  Cotton.  . 

699 

5.  Sugar-cane  ....   26 
6.  Rice                      16 

9.  Sweet  sor-' 
ghum  5 
10.  Rye  06 

2.  Corn  

335 

3.  Wheat  .  . 
4.  Oats  

30 
2* 

7.  Peanuts  14 
8.  Kafir  &  milo  ...     6 

11.  Barley  0.2 

FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


The  states  comprising  the  cotton-belt  are  North  Car- 
olina, South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama,  Mis- 
sissippi, Louisiana,  Texas,  Oklahoma,  Arkansas  and 
Tennessee. 

In  1909,  all  farm  crops  in  the  United  States  occupied 
311,293,382  acres  and  had  a  total  value  of  $5,073,997,594, 
which  was  92.5  per  cent  of  the  value  of  all  crops,  since 
these  totals  did  not  include  orchard  fruits,  nuts,  flowers, 
nursery  and  forest  products  on  farms,  amounting  to  a 
total  of  $413,163,629,  for  which  no  acreage  was  reported. 

The  cotton-belt,  with  25.6  per  cent  of  the  land  area  of  the 
continental  United  States,  33.7  per  cent  of  the  farm  area, 
and  24.4  per  cent  of  the  improved  land  in  farms,  had  25.8 
per  cent  of  the  crop  acreage  and  produced  29.3  per  cent 
of  the  value  of  all  crops  in  the  United  States  with  acreage 
reported. 

4.  Rank  of  the  cotton-belt  states.  —  The  total  value 
of  all  crops  for  each  state  in  the  cotton-belt  for  1909,  to- 
gether with  the  percentage  value  of  the  United  States' 
crop  produced  in  each  state,  is  shown  below: 

TABLE  1,  SHOWING  TOTAL  VALUE  OF  ALL  CROPS  WITH  ACREAGE 

REPORTS 
CROP  OF  1909.     MILLIONS  OF  DOLLARS 


U.S. 

TEX. 

GA. 

Miss. 

S.  C. 

ALA. 

OKLA. 

N.   C. 

ARK. 

TENN. 

LA. 

FLA. 

5,074 

287 

214 

139 

136 

136 

130 

128 

109 

108 

73 

26 

PER  CENT  OF  VALUE  OF  U.  S.  CROPS  PRODUCED  IN  EACH  STATE 


100 


5.7    |   4.2    |    2.8    j    2.7       2.7   |   2.6   |   2.5    |   2.2    |   2.1    f   1.5    |    0.5 


Texas  ranks  first,  having  produced  two-thirty-fifths  of 
the  value  of  the  entire  United  States'  crop.  Florida  ranks 
last,  having  produced  one-two-hundredths  of  the  value 
of  the  country's  crop. 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  VALUE  OF  FIELD  CROPS    5 


5.  Importance  of  field  crops  in  the  cotton-belt.  — 

Below  is  shown  the  relative  importance  of  the  eleven  field 
crops  treated  in  this  text  to  the  agriculture  of  both  the 
United  States  and  the  cotton-belt: 

TABLE  2,  SHOWING  PERCENTAGE  OF  ENTIRE  ACREAGE  OCCUPIED 
BY  EACH  CROP 


u.  s 

Cotton-belt 


10.331.7 
39.538.2 


14.2 
3.5 


11.2 
3.7 


0.2 
0.6 


0.2 
0.8 


0.3 
0.9 


0.5 
1.4 


0.1 
0.3 


0.7 


2.5 

0.02 


VALUE  OF  ALL  CROPS  VALUE  OF  ALL  CROPS 

U.S.A.  COTTON    BELT 

FIG.  1.  —  Diagram  showing  relative  value  of  field  crops  in  United  States 
and  in  cotton-belt. 

PERCENTAGE  OF  VALUE  OF  ALL  CROPS  REPRESENTED  IN  EACH  CROP 


u.  s 

13  9|28  4 

13  0 

8  4 

0  5 

0  3 

0  4 

0  2   ]   0  2 

0  4 

1  8 

Cotton-belt  

47.0(22.5 

2.0 

1.9 

0.2 

1.1 

0.9 

0.4   1  0.4 

0.04 

0.01 

In  1909,  practically  all  of  the  cotton,  sugar-cane,  rice, 
and  peanuts  grown  in  the  United  States  was  produced  in 
the  cotton-belt.  On  the  other  hand,  a  relatively  small 
percentage  of  the  small-grain  crop  was  produced  in  the 


6  FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

cotton-belt.  Barley,  for  example,  occupies  1  acre  in  40 
of  all  United  States'  crops  and  1  acre  in  5,000  in  the  cotton- 
belt.  Corn  occupies  a  greater  relative  area  and  returns  a 
smaller  relative  value  in  the  cotton-belt  than  in  the  entire 
United  States. 

The  total  value  of  all  field  crops  and  the  relative  value 
of  the  leading  crops  for  each  state  in  the  cotton-belt  are 
graphically  shown  in  Fig.  2. 

In  the  cotton-belt  cotton  occupies  two-fifths  of  the  land 
in  crops  and  produces  one-half  the  value  of  all  crops. 
Texas,  Georgia,  Mississippi  and  South  Carolina  are  the 
four  leading  cotton  states  in  order  of  rank.  The  1910 
Census  shows  that  the  acreage  of  corn  and  cotton  is  almost 
equal  in  the  cotton-belt.  The  value  of  the  cotton  crop 
is  2.1  times  the  value  of  the  corn  crop. 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  VALUE  OF  FIELD  CROPS    7 


D: 


o 

Q 

LL 
O 


Z 
O 


CHAPTER  II 
DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  COTTON  PLANT 

THE  cotton  plant  is  indigenous  to  the  tropical  regions 
of  both  hemispheres.  In  its  native  home  it  is  a  perennial. 
The  cotton  of  the  southern  United  States,  and  of  all  im- 
portant cotton-producing  countries,  is  an  annual,  being 
killed  by  the  low  temperatures  of  winter.  Under  cultiva- 
tion it  is  a  much  branched  herbaceous  shrub  ranging  in 
height  from  two  to  six  feet.  Cotton  is  grown  primarily 
as  a  source  of  fiber.  From  the  seed  various  by-products  of 
considerable  value  are  obtained.  > 

6.  The  root-system.  —  When  a  cotton  seed  is  placed 
in  a  warm,  moist  soil,  it  absorbs  water  and  swells.    Sub- 
sequently the  seed  coverings  burst  and  the  radicle,  and 
the  plumule,  a  short  time  later,  grow  out  and  elongate 
in  opposite  directions.     The  radicle  grows  to  form  the 
root-system  while  the  plumule  develops  into  the  aerial 
portion.    The  cotton  plant,  while  possessing  a  strong  tap- 
root, produces  the  greater  portion  of  its  feeding  roots  in 
the  upper  two  to  six  inches  of  soil.    The  copious  branching 
which  the  root  system  exhibits  enables  the  cotton  plant 
to  draw  its  food  supplies  from  a  large,  area  of  soil. 

7.  Types  of  roots.  —  Cotton  roots  may  be  classed  as 
primary  roots,  and  secondary  roots.    The  primary  root  is 
commonly  termed  the  tap-root.     It  is  a  continuation  of 
the  above-ground  stem  and  from  it  the  secondary  roots 
branch.     The  depth  to  which  the  primary  root  grows  is 
determined  largely  by  the  drainage  conditions  and  the 

8 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  COTTON  PLANT  9 

character  of  the  soil.  After  reaching  the  upper  surface 
of  the  water-table  in  the  soil,  the  primary  root  either 
ceases  to  grow  or  is  diverted  horizontally.  Balls,1  working 
with  Egyptian  cotton,  traced  a  tap-root  to  a  depth  of  more 
than  seven  feet.  In  a  sandy  soil  and  subsoil  the  South 
Carolina  Station  traced  well-developed  tap-roots  to  a 
depth  of  nearly  three  feet  without  coming  to  their  end.2 
Conversely,  it  was  found  that  cotton  plants  growing 'on 
heavy  clay  loam  soil  very  rarely  produced  well-developed 
tap-roots  more  than  nine  inches  in  length.  Under  very 
unfavorable  conditions  the  tap-roots  may  be  absent. 

The  secondary  roots  branch  off  laterally  from  the 
primary  root.  They  again  produce  other  laterals  and  this 
branching  process  continues  until  the  soil  is  completely 
filled  with  a  net-work  of  copiously  branched  roots  to  a 
depth  that  varies  from  two  to  eight  inches.  The  lateral 
roots  begin  to  grow  below  the  surface  of  the  soil  at  a 
depth  varying  from  one-half  inch  to  three  inches.  If  the 
soil  is  moist  they  may  come  almost  to  the  surface  a  short 
distance  from  the  plant.  In  almost  any  soil  the  secondary 
roots  develop  sufficiently  near  the  surface  to  be  injured  by 
deep  cultivation.  After  growing  in  a  lateral  direction  for  a 
distance  varying  from  two  to  three  feet,  some  of  the 
secondary  roots  grow  abruptly  downward  to  a  depth  of 
three  or  more  feet,  presumably  for  the  purpose  of  aiding  the 
plant  in  securing  moisture. 

The  absorptive  power  of  the  secondary  roots  is  due 
largely  to  the  root-hairs.  These  root-hairs  are  microscopic 
in  size  and  never  develop  into  true  roots.  They  comprise 
an  infinite  number  of  delicate  out-growths  of  the  surface 
cells  of  the  root,  forming  thin-walled  hairs.  They  are 

1  Balls,  W.  L.,  "The  Cotton  Plant  in  Egypt,"  p.  33. 

2  South  Carolina  Station  Bulletin  No.  7,  1892. 


10          FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

limited  to  a  zone  not  far  behind  the  growing  point, 
or  the  apex,  of  the  young  roots.  Root-hairs  are  very 
short-lived.  As  the  young  root  grows  in  length,  the 
root-hairs  farthest  from  the  growing  tip  perish,  more 
being  formed  continually  at  about  the  same  distance  from 
the  apex. 

8.  Functions  of  the  root-system.  —  In  the  main,  the 
functions  of  the  root-system  are:  (a)  'to  obtain  food  and 
water  for  the  plant,  (b)  to  excrete  carbon  dioxide  and 
possibly  organic  acids  that  render  plant-food  available, 
and  (c)  to  anchor  the  plant  to  the  soil,  and  thus  afford  a 
firm  support  for  the  aerial  portion. 

The  primary  function  of  the  tap-root  is  probably  that  of 
aiding  the  plant  to  secure  moisture.  During  periods  of 
drouth  it  is  very  helpful  in  this  respect.  This  is  evidenced 
by  the  fact  that  it  grows  faster  and  deeper  in  a  relatively 
dry  soil  than  in  a  wet  soil.  The  lateral  roots,  by  their 
extensive  growth  and  copious  branching,  are  the  means  of 
producing  the  infinite  number  of  root-hairs.  The  inter- 
spaces of  the  soil  are  penetrated  by  the  young  growing 
portions  of  the  roots  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  them  into 
close  contact  with  the  soil  particles.  The  delicate  root- 
hairs  stand  out  at  right  angles  to  the  surface  of  the  true 
root.  Consequently  they  are  brought  into  very  intimate 
relations  with  the  surface  of  the  particles.  A  film  of 
capillary  water  surrounds  each  soil  particle  and  contains, 
in  solution,  mineral  plant-food  which  has  been  dissolved 
from  the  soil.  Thus  the  acid  juices  in  the  root-hair  and 
the  solution  of  minerals  surrounding  the  soil  particle  are 
separated  only  by  the  thin  porous  wall  of  the  root-hair. 
This  relationship  makes  it  easy  for  the  root-hairs  to  per- 
form their  functions,  namely,  to  absorb  the  water  and 
soluble  food  in  the  soil,  and  also  to  excrete  into  the  soil- 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  COTTON  PLANT          11 

water  acids  which  aid  in  dissolving  fresh  supplies  of  plant- 
food.  While  the  root-hairs  constitute  the  absorbing  organs 
of  the  plant,  a  small  quantity  of  food  in  solution  is  absorbed 
directly  by  the  epidermal  tissues  of  the  true  roots.  The 
process  of  absorption  by  both  the  root-hairs  and  the  true 
roots  is  that  of  osmosis.1 

9.  The  stem.  —  The  cotton  plant  possesses  a  cylindri- 
cal,  erect,  gradually  tapering  central  stem  ranging  in 
length  from  two  to  six  feet.    From  the  nodes  of  this  stem 
the  branches  arise.    The  stem  and  branches  are  covered 
with  a  tough  greenish  or  reddish  bark.     Because  of  its 
strength,  due  to  the  relatively  large  percentage  of  bast 
fibers  contained,  cotton  bark  has  been  used  to  a  limited 
extent  as  a  coarse  fiber.    Inside  the  bark  the  stem  is  com- 
posed of  brittle,  white  wood,  which  decays  readily  when 
plowed  into  the  soil. 

10.  The    branches.  —  Like    all    true    branches,    the 
cotton  branches  arise  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.    As  they 
are  borne  at  the  nodes  on  the  stem  their  number  is  deter- 
mined by  the  length  of  the  stems  and  the  distance  between 
nodes.    The  Texas  Station  has  found  that  late  planting 

1  "Osmosis.  —  When  two  solutions  of  different  density  are  sep- 
arated by  a  porous  membrane,  there  will  be  first  a  movement  of  the 
weaker  solution  through  the  membrane  into  the  stronger,  and  later 
a  return  movement,  the  process  continuing  until  the  two  solutions 
have  the  same  density.  The  contents  of  a  root-hair  being  denser 
than  the  soil  solution  surrounding  it,  there  is  a  constant  movement 
of  the  soil  solution  into  the  root-hair.  By  some  means  the  exosmosis, 
which  would  take  place  in  the  case  of  an  ordinary  membrane  (move- 
ment of  the  cell  solution  outward),  seems  to  be  restrained  in  the 
root-hair,  probably  by  some  functional  activity  of  the  cell.  The 
result  is  a  much  greater  movement  into  the  root-hair  than  exudation 
out  of  it.  The  soil  solution  passes  from  the  root-hair  into  the  root 
and  is  finally  transmitted  to  the  stem  and  leaves."  —  E.  G.  Mont- 
gomery. 


12          FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

has  a  tendency  to  produce  tall  plants  with  long  joints.1 
Fertile  soils  containing  an  abundance  of  moisture  produce 
longer  jointed  plants  than  do  poor  soils  of  a  thirsty  char- 
acter. It  has  also  been  found  that  the  structure  of  the 
cotton  plant  with  reference  to  the  number  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  branches  is,  to  some  extent,  a  hereditary 
character  and  can  be  modified  by  careful  selection. 

The  length  of  the  branches  varies  with  the  variety,  the 
position  on  the  main-stem,  and  the  character  of  the  soil. 
The  largest  branches  are  borne  at  the  base  of  the  plant, 
the  length  decreasing  toward  the  top  of  the  plant.  This 
gives  most  cotton  plants  a  cone-shaped  appearance.  A 
different  shape,  however,  is  presented  by  the  "cluster 
varieties,"  there  being  only  a  few  long  basal  branches; 
above  these  only  very  short  branches  are  produced. 

Cotton  branches  may  be  classified  into  (1)  "  vegetative 
branches"  and  (2)  " fruiting  branches."  Vegetative 
branches  are  of  two  kinds:  (a)  long  branches  springing 
from  the  main-stem  and  having  no  boll-stems  directly 
attached,  but  possessing  sub-branches  which  bear  bolls; 
(b)  sterile  branches  whose  only  function  is  to  increase  the 
leaf  area  of  the  plant.  The  cotton  plant  often  bears  both 
.  a  vegetative  and  a  fruiting  branch  from  the  axil  of  the 
same  leaf  (Fig.  3) .  In  fact,  this  seems  to  represent  the  nor- 
mal branching  habit.  In  most  cases,  however,  one  or  the 
other  of  these  branches  fails  to  develop,  only  the  rudiment 
of  a  branch  being  produced.  The  very  frequent  occurrence 
of  the  sterile  branches  produces  leafy,  unproductive  plants. 
This  defect  can  be  remedied  by  carefully  selecting  seed 
from  plants  that  produce  a  large  proportion  of  fruiting 
limbs. 

11.  The  leaves.  —  Cotton  leaves  are  borne  alternately 
1  Texas  Station  Bulletin,  No.  77,  p.  20. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  COTTON  PLANT 


13 


on  the  stem  or  branch.  They  are  petioled,  somewhat 
heart-shaped,  three  to  seven-lobed  and  three  to  seven- 
veined.  The  petioles 
and  veins  are  often 
hairy.  The  mid- 
veins,  and  some- 
times the  adjacent 
ones,  bear  a  gland 
one-third  the  dis- 
tance from  their 
base.  In  some  cases 
these  glands  are  ab- 
sent. Cotton  leaves 
are  very  variable  in 
size,  even  on  the 
same  plant.  They 
range  from  three  to 
six  inches  in  length 
and  from  two  to 
five  inches  in  width. 
The  leaves  of  the 
American  upland 
cotton  (both  short 
and  long  staple)  are 
most  commonly 
three-lobed,  some- 
times fi  V  6-1  O  b  e  d.  FIG.  3.  —  Stalk  of  Lone  Star  upland  cpt- 
mi_  i  -i  ton,  with  (a)  vegetative  and  (6)  fruiting 

The  lobes  are  rather          branches  from  the  same  node. 

blunt,  the  spaces  be- 
tween lobes  being  shallow.    This  is  especially  true  as  re- 
gards the  big-boll  kinds.    Certain  of  the  small-boll  kinds, 
of  which  King  and  Peterkin  are  representatives,  produce 
leaves  having  narrow  sharp-pointed  lobes.     The  leaves 


14          FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

of  Sea  Island  cotton  are  three-lobed  also,  but  the  lobes 
are  much  longer  and  slenderer  and  the  indentations  much 
deeper  than  in  the  upland  cottons. 

The  principal  functions  of  the  leaves  are:  (1)  to  make 
possible  the  free  circulation  of  solutions  of  food  and  air 
throughout  the  plant;  (2)  to  give  off  the  excess  of  water 
taken  up  by  the  roots;  (3)  to  take  up  from  the  air  the 
carbon  dioxide  needed  to  build  plant-tissue;  (4)  to  elab- 
orate plant-food  from  the -minerals  and  water  taken  from 
the  soil,  and  the  carbon  and  oxygen  taken  from  the  air; 
(5)  to  absorb  from  the  sun  the  energy  necessary  for  the 
activities  enumerated  above. 

12.  The  vascular  system.  —  In  the  description  of  the 
cotton  leaf  attention  was  called  to  the  system  of  leaf-veins, 
ranging  in  number  from  three  to  seven.    A  careful  exam- 
ination will  reveal  a  much-branched  net-work  of  minor 
veins  springing  from  the  larger  veins.  v  If  a  cross-section 
of  a  leaf  is  examined  under  the  microscope,  it  will  be  seen 
that  these  veins  are  composed,  of  specialized  tissue  of 
vessels  and  fibers.    This  fibrous  tissue  of  the  leaves  extends 
throughout  the  petioles,   the  branches,   the  main-stem, 
and  into  the  root-system,  and  is  known  as  the  vascular 
system.    It  is  by  means  of  this  vascular  system  that  solu- 
tions are  carried  from  the  roots  to  the  stems  and  leaves. 

13.  Air  cavities.  —  Besides  being  supplied  with  food 
and  water,  each  leaf  cell  must  have  air,  or  rather  carbon 
dioxide  from  the  air.     To  supply  this  there  is  provided 
throughout  the  entire  leaf  tissue  a  system  of  continuous 
openings,  or  air  spaces,  between  the  cells.     These  air 
cavities  communicate  with  the  exterior  in  all  the  green 
parts  of  the  leaf.     The  openings  through  which  the  air 
enters  are  known  as  stomata  and  are  most  numerous  on 
the  under  side  of  the  leaves.    By  means  of  this  delicate 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  COTTON  PLANT 


15 


system  of  air-passages,  each  leaf  cell  is,  in  a  somewhat 
intricate  manner,  .  _  , 
brought  into 


the 


con- 
ex- 


FIG. 4.  —  Flower  of  upland  cotton,  from 
the  side,  showing  the  position  of  the  small 
calyx-lobe  opposite  the  smallest  bract. 


tact    with 
ternal  air. 

14.  The  pedun- 
cles. —  The  pedun- 
cles are  small  stems 
connecting  the  flow- 
ers and  later  the 
bolls  with  the 
branch.  Their 
length  varies  with 
the  variety  of  cot- 
ton, and  also  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the 
same  plant.  In  American  upland  cotton  the  length  ranges 

from  one-half  inch 
to  two  inches. 

There  seems  to  be 
a  relation  between 
the  length  of  the 
peduncle  and 
"storm  resistance" 
in  cotton.  The 
length  should  be 
such  as  will  permit 
the  boll  to  hang 
with  its  tip  down- 

FIG.  5.  —  Bracts  of  upland  cotton  inclosing      ward,    SO    that     the 
bud,  showing  twisted  teeth. 

leafy  bracts,  or  in- 
volucres, will  protect  the  lint  from  rain.  The  pe- 
duncle should  not  be  so  long  as  to  cause  it  to  bend 


16 


FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


abruptly,  as  this  retards  the  development  of  the 
boll. 

15.  The  flowers  (Figs.  4-6).  —  Cotton  flowers  are  large 
and  rather  conspicuous.     At  the  juncture  of  the  peduncle 
and  the  flower  is  borne  a  three-  (sometimes  four-)  leaved 
involucre.    The  calyx  is  short  and  composed  of  five  united 
sepals,  presenting  a  cup-shaped  appearance.    The  corolla 

is  free  from,  but  inserted  beneath, 
the  pistil.  There  are  five  petals, 
which  are  often  grown  together  at 
their  base  and  attached  to  the 
lower  part  of  the  stamen-tube. 
The  stamens  are  numerous;  the 
anthers  one-celled  and  kidney- 
shaped;  the  pollen-grains  spheroid 
in  shape,  heavy  and  waxy.  The 
ovary  is  sessile  and  three-  to  five- 
celled.  The  pistil  is  divided  into 
parts  or  stigmas,  from  three  to 
five  in  number.  In  American  up- 
land cotton  the  pistil  is  divided 

into  four  or  five  stigmas,  while  three  is  the  pre- 
vailing number  in  Sea  Island  cotton.  The  number  of 
stigmas  present  indicates  the  number  of  locks  of  seed 
cotton  that  will  develop  in  that  particular  boll. 

In  upland  cotton  the  flowers  are  a  creamy-white  color 
on  the  morning  that  they  open.  They  change  to  a  reddish 
color  the  second  day,  and  later  fall.  The  flowers  of  the 
Sea  Island  cotton  are  yellowish  in  color. 

16.  The  bolls.  —  The  ovary  of  the  cotton  flower  con- 
tains from  few  to  many  ovules.    After  these  ovules  have 
been  fertilized  by  the  pollen-grains,  the  pistil  develops 
into  a  more  or  less  thickened,  leathery  capsule  called  the 


FIG.  6.  —  Stamens  and 
stigmas  of  Egyptian 
cotton. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  COTTON  PLANT          17 

boll.  The  length  of  time  from  the  fertilization  of  the 
ovules  to  the  production  of  a  mature  boll  varies  from  40 
to  55  days.  The  bolls  are  oval  in  shape,  distinctly  pointed 
at  the  apex  and  vary  in  size  from  1.5  to  2.5  inches  in  length 
and  from  1.25  to  1.75  inches  in  width.  From  the  base  of 
the  boll  to  the  apex,  divisions  or  valves  are  found,  from 
three  to  five  in  number.  The  contents  of  each  valve  are 
called  a  lock.  The  bolls  of  American  upland  cotton  (both 
long  and  short  staple  varieties)  usually  contain  four  or 
five  locks.  The  Alabama  Experiment  Station,  working 
with  upland  cotton,  has  found  that  bolls  with  five  locks 
yield  more  cotton  per  boll  than  bolls  having  only  four 
locks. 

When  the  boll  matures  it  opens,  exposing  the  seed  cotton 
inside.  The  opening  is  caused  by  the  valves  "separating 
along  their  central  axis  and  at  the  same  time  splitting 
down  the  middle  of  the  back."  The  valve  walls  after 
opening  are  spoken  of  collectively  as  the  "bur." 

The  Texas  Station  l  has  found  that  there  is  a  relation 
between  the  thickness  of  the  burs  and  the  tendency  of  the 
seed  cotton  to  be  blown  out  by  winds  or  beaten  out  by 
rains.  If  the  burs  are  thin,  they  curl  backward  in  opening, 
thus  allowing  the  seed  cotton  to  drop  easily. 

17.  Number  of  bolls  to  the  plant.  —  The  factors  that 
determine  the  number  of  bolls  to  the  plant  are  fertility  of 
soil,  rain-fall,  climate,  variety,  and  the  structure  of  the 
plant  with  reference  to  the  arrangement  and  character 
of  the  vegetative  and  fruiting  limbs.  Fertile  soils,  well 
supplied  with  moisture,  produce  plants  with  a  larger  num- 
ber of  bolls  than  do  poor,  droughty  soils.  Excessively 
productive  soils,  especially  as  regards  nitrogen,  often 
produce  a  large  amount  of  vegetative  growth  at  the  expense 
1  Texas  Station  Bulletin,  No.  75. 


18          FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

of  fruit.  Close-jointed  plants  throughout,  including  the 
main-stem,  the  primary  and  fruiting  limbs,  bear  the  max- 
imum number  of  bolls.  While  this  character  of  the  plant 
is  influenced  to  some  extent  by  environmental  conditions, 
it  is  also  a  hereditary  character  and  can  be  greatly  modified 
by  careful  seed  selection. 

18.  The  seed.  —  Within  each  lock  of  cotton  there  are 
six  to  ten  oblong  or  angular  seeds.    The  seed  tapers  some- 
what toward  the  hilum  end,  terminating  in  a  sharp  point. 
The  crown  or  free  end  is  enlarged  and  rounded.    The  seeds 
of  both  long-staple  and  short-staple  upland  cotton,  after 
having  the  lint  removed,  are  covered  with  a  pronounced 
fuzz  which  may  be  grayish,  rusty  or  green  in  color,  often 
changing  color  with  maturity  and  age.    The  seeds  of  Sea 
Island  cotton  are  naked  and  black. 

The  cotton  seed  is  composed  of  (1)  the  testa  or  hull,  (2) 
the  endosperm,  a  layer  of  cells  composed  largely  of  aleurone 
grains,  and  (3)  the  embryo  or  meat,  which  consists  of  the 
two  cotyledons,  the  embryo  sprout  and  the  embryo  root. 

The  seeds  of  upland  cotton  as  they  come  from  the  gin 
have  been  found  to  have  the  following  physical  composi- 
tion: linters,  10  per  cent;  hulls,  40  per  cent;  meat,  50  per 
cent. 

The  legal  weight  of  a  bushel  of  upland  cotton  seed  varies 
from  30  to  33^  pounds;  it  is  usually  32  pounds.  A  legal 
bushel  of  Sea  Island  cotton  seed  is  44  pounds. 

19.  The  lint.  —  A  cotton  fiber  may  be  defined  as  a 
unicellular  hair  which  has  been  developed  from  the  cuti- 
cle of  the  cotton  seed.    According  to  Watt 1  each  fiber 
is  composed  of  the  following  parts:  (a)  the  cell-wall  or 
cuticular  envelope  of  the  elongated  hair;  (b)  the  deposits 

!Sir  George  Watt,  "The  Wild  and  Cultivated  Cotton  Plants  of 
the  World,"  p.  30, 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  COTTON  PLANT          19 

of  cellulose  laid  down  within  and  upon  the  envelope;  (c) 
the  core  of  cell-contents  filling  up  the  central  cavity. 

If  a  cotton  fiber  be  examined  carefully  under  a  magnify- 
ing glass  it  will  be  found  that  it  is  broadest  near  or  a  little 
below  the  middle  and  gradually  tapers  toward  both  the 
base  and  the  apex.  If  the  fiber  is  mature  this  examination 
will  show  the  fiber-tube  to  be  somewhat  flattened  and 
irregularly  twisted.  It  is  claimed  that  the  number  of  the 
twists  varies  from  300  to  500  to  an  inch.  The  amount  of 
twist  in  the  cotton  fiber  is  very  important  in  determining 
its  spinning  qualities  and,  hence,  its  value.  The  degree  of 
twisting  is,  to  a  large  extent,  determined  by  the  stage  of 
maturity  of  the  fiber.  The  immature  fibers,  on  drying, 
form  almost  flat,  structureless  ribbons,  with  very  little 
twist.  In  almost  any  lot  of  cotton  the  following  classes  of 
fibers  may  be  recognized:  (1)  ripe;  (2)  half  ripe,  and  (3) 
unripe.  In  addition  to  these  three  classes,  a  fourth  class, 
namely,  over-ripe  fibers  is  often  noticeable.  In  this  class 
the  fibers  are  spoken  of  as  being  rod-like,  devoid  of  elastic- 
ity and  unsuitable  for  spinning  purposes. 

20.  Length  and  strength  of  fiber. —  The  length  of 
cotton  fiber  varies  with  different  kinds  of  cotton,  and  to  a 
slight  extent  with  soil  fertility.  Duggar  l  gives  the  follow- 
ing as  the  approximately  average  lengths  of  fibers  of  the 
principal  kinds  of  cotton: 

Sea  Island,  1.61  inches; 

Egyptian,  1.41  inches; 

American  upland,  0.93  inches; 

American  long-staple,  1.3  inches. 

The  fibers  vary  in  length  even  on  the  same  seed.    Those 
at  the  base  or  pointed  end  of  the  seed  are  usually  shorter 
than  those  borne  on  the  apex  end.    This  is  probably  due 
1  Duggar,  J.  F.,  "Southern  Field  Crops,"  p.  263. 


20          FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

to  the  slower  growth  and  later  starting  of  the  fibers  on  the 
base  of  the  seed.  In  the  upland  cotton  there  is,  in  addition 
to  the  fiber  proper,  an  "  under-fleece "  (called  fuzz  or 
linters)  which  is  very  short,  as  a  result  of  the  failure  of  a 
number  of  "cuticular  cells"  to  elongate. 

The  strength  of  the  cotton  fiber  varies  according  to  its 
ripeness  and  fineness.  From  2.5  to  15  grams  represents 
roughly  its  breaking  strength.  Williams,  of  North  Car- 
olina, found  the  average  breaking  strength  of  single  fibers 
representing  twelve  different  varieties,  to  be  6.83  grams. 
As  a  result  of  tests  made  by  Hilgard  the  breaking  strength 
was  found  to  vary,  from  4  to  14  grams  in  upland  cotton. 
The  cotton  fiber,  in  proportion  to  its  size,  is  stronger  than 
jute  or  flax  and  is  three  times  as  strong  as  wool.  It  is  sur- 
passed in  strength  by  the  fibers  of  hemp,  manila  hemp, 
and  silk. 


CHAPTER  III 
PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  COTTON  PLANT 

A  PLANT,  like  an  animal,  is  dependent  upon  certain  vital 
actions  or  functions  to  maintain  life.  Careful  analysis 
of  a  living  plant  shows  it  to  be  made  up  of  distinct  parts, 
each  part  performing  more  or  less  definite  functions.  It 
is  essential,  therefore,  that  we  become  familiar  with  the 
more  important  of  these  functions  and  the  relation  of  each 
to  the  well-being  of  the  plant. 

21.  The  plant  structure.  —  The  cotton  plant  is  made 
up  of  innumerable  cells.     Each  cell  in  the  hard  part  of 
the  plant  has  a  somewhat  thickened  cell-wall,  composed 
chiefly  of  cellulose,  the  substance  of  which  paper  is  made. 
These  cell-walls  are  united,  the  resulting  tissue  constitut- 
ing the  skeleton  of  the  plant.     There  are  two  kinds  of 
strengthening  tissues  composing  the  plant  skeleton,  differ- 
ing mainly  as  regards  the  structure  of  the  cell-wall.    These 
are  (1)  those  tissues  in  which  the  cell- walls  are  thickened 
at  the  corners  only,  (collenchyma)  and  (2)  tissues  in  which 
the  cell-walls  are  equally  thickened  throughout,   (scler- 
enchyma).    The  former  tissue  is  found  only  in  the  young 
growing  parts  of  the  plant,  while  the  latter  occurs  in  the 
older  parts  in  which  growth  has  ceased. 

The  function  of  the  skeleton  is  to  give  stability  to  the 
plant.  It  is  by  means  of  this  strengthening  tissue  that  a 
cotton  plant  supports  its  own  weight,  and  resists  the  force 
of  winds. 

22.  The  living  substance  in  the  plant.  —  Within  the 
cell-walls  is  contained  a  transparent,  jelly-like  substance 

21 


22 


FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


called  protoplasm.  This  proptolasm  constitutes  the  life 
of  the  plant.  It  is  the  center  of  all  the  activities  that  the 
plant  manifests.  Quoting  from  Green,  "The  protoplasm 
assimilates  the  food  which  the  plant  requires  and  carries 
out  all  the  chemical  processes  necessary  for  life.  It  con- 
structs the  framework  of  the  plant  by  which  it  is  itself 
supported.  .  .  Finally  it  carries  out  the  processes  of  re- 
production." 


THE   COMPOSITION   OF   THE    COTTON   PLANT 

23.  Composition.  —  Approximately  90  per  cent  of  the 
weight  of  a  young,  succulent  cotton  plant  is  water.  The 
remaining  10  per  cent  is  called  dry  matter.  As  the  plant 
grows  and  becomes  more  woody,  the  percentage  of  water 
present  decreases  and  the  percentage  of  dry  matter  in- 
creases correspondingly.  At  maturity  the  plants  are  about 
60  per  cent  water  and  40  per  cent  dry  matter. 

TABLE  3,  SHOWING  APPROXIMATE  COMPOSITION  OF  AIR-DRY  COTTON 

PLANTS  l 


Nitro- 

Water 

Ash 

Pro- 
tein 

Fiber 

gen 
free 

Fat 

ext. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

Mature  plant  collected 

Oct  25 

7  36 

5  81 

9  13 

30  94 

42  84 

3  92 

Young   plant   collected 

June  3  

*10.00 

15.62 

21.49 

16.88 

32.51 

4.00 

Young    plant   collected 

June  25  

*10.00 

14.59 

•22.09 

18.79 

29.98 

4.55 

1  Bui.  33,  Off.  Exp.  Sta.,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr. 


Assumed. 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  COTTON  PLANT          23 

The  dry  matter  is  composed  largely  of  combustible 
material,  nearly  all  of  which  comes  from  the  air  and  water. 
Four  elements  enter  into  the  composition  of  the  combusti- 
ble part.  These  are  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitro- 
gen. The  ash  which  is  left  after  the  dry  matter  has  been 
burned,  is  composed  of  mineral  matter  taken  from  the 
soil.  Less  than  2  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  a  green  cotton 
plant  is  secured  from  the  soil. 

24.  The  essential  constituents.  —  There  are  ten  ele- 
ments essential  to  plant  growth.    Of  these  ten  elements, 
four  are  metals  and  six  are  non-metals.    The  four  metals 
are  potassium,  calcium,  magnesium,  and  iron,  all  of  which 
the  plant  secures  directly  from  the  soil.     Of  the  non- 
metals,  two,  sulfur  and  phosphorus,  are  secured  directly 
from  the  soil,  while  nitrogen  is  obtained  indirectly  from 
the  air  through  the  soil.    The  remaining  three  are  carbon, 
obtained  largely  from  the  carbon  dioxide  of  the  air,  and 
hydrogen  and  oxygen,  obtained  from  water  (some  hydro- 
gen is  obtained  from  ammonia  and  some  oxygen  from  the 
air).     Those  elements  that  are  derived  from  the  soil  are 
absorbed  in  the  form  of  salts. 

NUTRITION 

The  growing  cotton  plant  is  dependent  upon  certain 
vital  activities  for  its  existence,  such  as  the  absorption 
of  food  and  water,  the  assimilation  of  carbon  dioxide,  the 
digestion  of  the  raw  food  materials,  the  giving  off  of  oxy- 
gen and  water,  and  the  securing  of  the  necessary  energy 
for  these  activities.  The  processes  which  promote  growth 
and  repair  the  waste  caused  by  the  vital  activities  are 
called  nutritive  processes. 

25.  The    absorption    of   food.  —  The    essential    food 
elements  were  discussed  in  paragraph  24.    The  structure 


24          FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

of  the  plant  is  such  that  all  of  the  food  materials  must 
be  taken  up  in  solution  or,  in  the  case  of  carbon  and  some 
of  the  oxygen,  as  a  gas.  The  mineral  constituents  obtained 
from  the  soil  are  taken  in  by  the  root-hairs  with  the 
stream  of  water.  This  dilute  solution  of  food  passes 
through  the  soft  outer  tissues  (cortex)  of  the  root  to  the 
vascular  system  through  which  it  passes  directly  to  the 
leaves. 

In  taking  up  food,  roots  exhibit  a  selective  power  in 
that  they  take  up  from  the  soil  certain  elements  to  the 
total  or  partial  exclusion  of  others.  For  instance,  from  a 
solution  of  sodium  nitrate  plants  take  up  the  nitric  acid 
and  leave  the  sodium.  The  continuous  absorption  of 
food  and  water  by  the  cotton  plant  will  depend  upon  cer- 
tain external  conditions  such  as  the  moisture  content  of 
the  soil,  the  nature  and  amount  of  plant  food  materials  in 
the  soil,  the  temperature  of  tjie  soil,  the  activity  of  trans- 
piration, and  the  intensity  of  light. 

26.  *The  taking  up  of  carbon.  —  Approximately  50 
per  cent  of  the  weight  of  a  water-free  cotton  plant  is  car- 
bon. The  plant  secures  its  carbon  from  the  carbon  dioxide 
of  the  air.  It  is  estimated  that  carbon  dioxide  exists  in 
the  air  in  the  ratio  of  about  3  parts  in  10,000  or  0.03  per 
cent. 

As  shown  in  paragraph  11,  one  of  the  functions  of  the 
leaves  is  to  take  up  from  the  air  the  carbon  dioxide  needed 
to  build  plant  tissue.  This  process  is  greatly  facilitated 
by  the  large  number  of  stomata  that  are  thickly  scattered 
over  the  under-surface,  and  to  a  less  extent,  the  upper- 
surface  of  the  leaves.  One  of  the  primary  functions  of 
the  stomata  is  to  serve  the  plant  as  breathing  pores.  The 
air  containing  carbon  dioxide  passes  through  the  stomata 
into  the  air-spaces  of  the  leaf.  From  here  the  carbon 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  TtfE  COTTON  PLANT          25 

dioxide  is  absorbed  by  the  leaf  cells,  in  which  it  is  broken 
down  into  carbon  and  oxygen.  %The  carbon  unites  with 
the  water  which  has  been  absorbed  from  the  soil,  the 
result  being  the  formation  of  carbohydrates.  This  process 
is  called  photosynthesis.  The  following  equation  has 
been  suggested  as  representing  the  changes  that  take  place : 

6  C02  +  6  H20  =  C6H1206  +  6  02 
carbon  dioxide    water    photosynthate1     oxygen 

Most  of  the  sugar  thus  formed  is  quickly  converted  into 
starch,  probably  in  accordance  with  the  following  reaction : 

C6H120C  =  C6H1005H20 

While  the  starch  is  manufactured  in  the  leaves,  it  can- 
not be  transferred  in  this  form  to  other  parts  of  the  plant 
for  building  tissues  as  starch  is  not  soluble.  Consequently 
it  is  later  changed  back  into  sugar  in  which  form  it  is 
carried  to  all  parts  of  the  plant,  for  the  formation  of  car- 
bohydrate material. 

At  the  same  time  that  the  carbon  dioxide  is  being  taken 
up  from  the  air  and  decomposed  in  the  plant,  an  almost 
equal  volume  of  oxygen  is  being  given  off  from  the  leaves 
as  a  by-product. 

27.  The  necessary  energy.  —  The  breaking  down  of 
the  carbon  dioxide  and  the  formation  of  carbohydrate 
materials  in  the  plant,  such  as  sugar  and  starch,  require 
the  expenditure  of  considerable  energy.  The  plant  se- 
cures this  energy  From  the  sunlight.  The  leaf  cells,  except 
those  in  the  veins,  contain  small  green  chlorophyll  bodies. 
These  chlorophyll  grajns  absorb  both  the  carbon  dioxide 
and  the  sunlight,  and  with  the  energy  thus  received,  the 

1  This  term  is  being  applied  in  the  recent  plant  physiologies  to  the 
carbohydrate  produced  as  the  result  of  photosynthesis. 


26          FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

carbon  dioxide  is  decomposed  and  various  food  materials 
are  elaborated.  Ttye  greater  part  of  the  energy  which 
the  plant  secures  from  the  sunlight,  however,  is  expended 
in  the  evaporation  of  water  from  the  leaves. 

i 

THE   GIVING   OFF   OF  WATER 

28.  We  have  seen  that  the  cotton  leaf  is  an  organ  for 
the  reception  of  light  and  the  absorption  of  gases.  It 
is  also  by  means  of  the  leaves  that  the  cotton  plant  rids 
itself  of  the  large  amount  of  surplus  water  absorbed  by 
the  roots.  Not  all  of  the  leaf  area,  however,  can  be  classed 
as  transpiring  surface.  In  fact,  to  prevent  the  too  rapid 
loss  of  water,  the  surface  of  the  leaf  is  made  water-proof 
by  waxes  so  that  water  can  escape  only  at  the  stomata. 
Each  stoma  is  surrounded  by  two  guard-cells  which  serve 
as  automatic  devices  for  regulating  the  loss  of  water  from 
the  plant.  The  following  quotation  from  Osterhout  makes 
clear  the  function  of  the  guard-cells. 

"When  the  water-supply  is  abundant,  especially  in 
the  presence  of  sunlight,  the  guard-cells  absorb  water 
and  expand.  The  pressure  causes  the  walls  that  bound 
the  pores  or  stomata  to  open.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
these  inner  walls  are  thicker  than  the  outer  walls.  The 
effect  is  the  same  as  would  be  produced  on  a  rubber  tube 
by  thickening  one  side  by  cementing  an  extra  strip  of  rub- 
ber on  it.  If  such  a  tube  be  closed  at  one  end  while  air 
or  water  is  pumped  in  at  the  other,  it  will  bend  so  that  the 
tm'ckened  side  becomes  concave. 

"The  absorption  of  the  water  by  the  guard-cells  is  aided 
in  sunlight  by  the  action  of  the  chlorophyll  grains  which 
they  contain;  these  produce  sugar  which  aids  the  cells 
in  taking  up  water  from  the  other -cells  of  the  epidermis 
that  have  no  chlorphyll  grains. 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  COTTON  PLANT          27 

"When,  therefore,  the  water-supply  is  sufficient,  and 
especially  when  sunlight,  temperature  and  other  condi- 
tions are  favorable  for  leaf  activity,  the  stomata  open 
and  permit  the  leaf  to  absorb  carbon  dioxide.  On  the 
other  hand,  lack  of  water  and  unfavorable  conditions 
cause  them  to  close." 

The  evaporation  of  water  is  of  great  advantage  to  the 
plant,  in  that  it  regulates  certain  physical  properties, 
especially  the  temperature  of  the  plant.  Again,  it  con- 
centrates in  the  leaf  the  food  materials  taken  up  from  the 
soil.  It  is  in  the  leaf  that  these  soluble  salts  meet  and 
combine  with  the  food  taken  from  the  air,  to  form  elab- 
orated food  such  as  protein. 

REPRODUCTION 

The  life-story  of  the  cotton  plant  does  not  begin  with 
the  germination  of  the  seed.  The  new  individual  begins 
when  the  generative  nucleus  of  the  pollen-grain  unites 
with  the  egg-cell  nucleus  of  the  ovule.  As  a  result  of  this 
fusion  the  seed  containing  the  embryo,  or  miniature  plant, 
develops. 

29.  The  reproductive  organs.  —  The  organs  of  re- 
production are  the  pistil  and  the  stamens.  The  pistil  is 
the  female  organ  and  is  composed  of  (1)  the  ovary,  which 
forms  the  base  of  the  pistil  and  contains  the  ovules;  (2)  the 
style,  constituting  the  more  or  less  narrowed  column  of 
the  pistil,  and  (3)  the  stigmas,  composing  that  part  of  the 
pistil,  which  receives  the  pollen-grains.  The  stamens  are 
the  male  organs  of  the  plant.  Each  stamen  consists  of 
(1)  a  filament,  or  thread-like  stalk,  and  (2)  the  anther  — 
a  somewhat  kidney-shaped  body  borne  on  the  apex  of  the 
filament  and  bearing  the  pollen-grains.  „ 

In  Egyptian  cotton  the  style  is  rather  long,  carrying 


28          FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

the  stigmas  well  above  the  stamens,  so  that  insects  may 
be  required  for  fertilization.  In  flowers  of  American 
upland  cotton  the  style  is  usually  shorter  and  the  stigmas 
may  remain  buried  among  the  stamens,  insuring  self- 
fertilization.1 

30.  The   pollen-grains   and   egg-cells.  —  The  pollen- 
grains  in  cotton  are  almost  spherical  in  shape.    They  are 
composed  of  two  coats  or  walls  which  inclose  a  thickened, 
granular  fluid.2     According  to  Balls3   the  pollen-grains 
are  formed  in  groups  of  four.    At  first,  each  grain  posses- 
ses only  one  nucleus.     Later  the  nucleus  divides,  forming 
the  two  male  gametes.    At  this  stage  the  pollen-grain  is 
mature. 

Balls  states  that  the  spores  which  become  the  egg-cells 
(megaspores)  are  also  formed  in  groups  of  four,  "but  the 
three  nearest  the  base  of  the  ovule  abort  and  only  the 
fourth  member  becomes  a  megaspore."  As  this  megaspore 
develops,  there  are  given  off  two  polar  nuclei,  the  function 
of  which  will  be  explained  in  the  next  paragraph. 

31.  Fertilization.  —  The  method  by  which  the  pollen- 
grain  reaches  and  fertilizes  the  egg-cell  in  cotton  is  out- 
lined by  Balls  as  follows: 

"The  sugar  solution  excreted  by  hairs  on  the  style 
retains  the  pollen-grain  and  causes  it  to  germinate.  The 
single  pollen-tube  traverses  the  tissue  of  the  style  and  the 
conducting  tissues  till  the  end  enters  one  of  the  loculi, 
along  the  wall  of  which  it  passes  till  it  finds  the  micropyle 
of  an  ovule.  Traces  of  branching  may  be  seen  at  this 
point.  Passing  through  the  micropyle  channel  to  the 

1  Bureau  of  Plant  Ind.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.  222,  p.  20. 

2  Watts,  "  The  Wild  and  Cultivated  Cotton  Plants  of  the  World," 
p.  344. 

3  Balls,  W.  L.,  "  The  Cotton  Plant  in  Egypt,"  p.  10. 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  COTTON  PLANT          29 

nucellus,  it  bores  through  the  tissues  of  the  latter,  and 
after  literally  squeezing  its  way  through  the  firmer  wall 
of  the  megaspore,  the  end  of  the  tube  swells  up  and  bursts. 
From  the  torn  end  escape  the  two  male  gametes,  one  of 
which  passes  to  and  fuses  with  the  egg-cell,  forming  a 
zygote,  and  thus  beginning  a  new  life-history.  The  other 
male  nucleus  fuses  with  the  two  polar  -nuclei,  and  the 
triple  nucleus  thus  formed  serves  later  to  provide  the 
endosperm. 

"The  process  is  exceptionally  rapid.  Fertilization  is 
normally  completed  within  thirty  hours  after  the  first 
opening  of  the  flower,  i.  e.,  by  the  afternoon  of  the  follow- 
ing day." 

32.  The  embryo.  —  A  period  ranging  from  40  to  60 
days  elapses  from  the  time  the  cotton  flower  opens  until 
the  mature  boll  is  formed.  During  this  time  the  embryo 
is  slowly  developing  inside  the  fertilized  ovule,  or  seed. 
When  the  embryo  is  one  week  old  it  has  been  found  to 
be  just  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  It  is  somewhat  heart- 
shaped  in  general  outline.  The  pointed  end  develops 
into  the  radicle,  or  first  root,  while  the  two  lobes  go  to 
form  the  first  leaves  of  the  embryo.  These  first  leaves 
(cotyledons)  are  broader  than  the  seed  in  which  they  are 
contained,  and  hence  are  much  folded  within  the  seed  coat. 
It  is  in  these  first  miniature  leaves  or  cotyledons  that 
the  oil  content  of  the  cotton  seed  is  contained. 


CHAPTER  IV 
THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  COTTON 

COTTON  belongs  to  the  natural  order  Malvales.  This 
order  of  plants  includes  herbs,  shrubs,  and  trees,  nearly 
all  of  which  bear  showy,  involucrate  flowers  with  calyx 
of  distinct  or  partially  united  sepals.  The  order  Malvales 
comprises  three  families  of  plants,  namely,  Tillaceae  or 
linden  family,  Sterculiaceae  or  chocolate  family,  and 
Malvaceae  or  mallow  family.  Cotton  belongs  to  the  latter 
family  and  to  the  genus  or  subfamily,  Gossypium. 

33.  Malvaceae  or  mallow  family.  —  This  family  in- 
cludes largely  tropical  plants,   the  species  diminishing 
rapidly  in  number  and  prevalence  as  we  recede  from  the 
equator.    According  to  Watt,  they  are  also  more  numerous 
in  the  northern  tropics  of  the  New  than  of  the  Old  World. 

The  mallow  family  includes,  besides  cotton,  some  of 
the  silk  cottons,  and  several  well-known  bast-fibers,  among 
which  is  the  hemp-leaved  mallow  of  southern  Europe. 
Okra,  and  a  few  cultivated  flowers,  such  as  hollyhocks, 
hibiscus,  and  althea  or  "rose  of  Sharon,"  are  also  members 
of  this  family.  From  the  industrial  standpoint  the  cotton 
plant  is,  by  far,  the  most  important  member  of  the  mallow 
family. 

One  of  the  chief  distinguishing  features  of  the  mallow 
family  is  that  the  stamens  unite  to  form  a  tube  around  the 
pistil.  Also  the  anthers  are  one-celled. 

34.  The  genus  Gossypium.  —  This  genus  includes  all 
species  of  both  wild  and  cultivated  cottons.    The  plants 

30 


THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  COTTON          31 

in  this  genus  are  characterized  by  possessing  erect  branch- 
ing stems.  The  leaves  are  petioled  and  palmately  lobed. 
The  flowers  are  showy.  There  are  five  sepals  united  into 
a  cup-like  calyx;  also  five  petals,  of  whitish  or  yellowish 
color,  often  turning  pink.  The  seeds  are  angular  and 
wooly,  or,  more  rarely,  naked.  In  this  genus  the  stigmas 
grow  together  and  usually  number  from  three  to  five, 
according  to  the  number  of  locks  that  will  be  contained  in 
the  mature  boll. 

35.  Number  of  species.  —  There  has  been  much  dif- 
ference of  opinion  among  botanists  as  to  the  number  of 
species  composing  the  genus  Gossypium.    Watt,  in  "The 
Wild  and  Cultivated  Cotton  Plants  of  the  World"  describes 
29  species  of  cotton,  many  of  which  have  never  been  re- 
corded as  seen  under  cultivation.    Duggar l  states  that  as 
many  as  fifty-four  species  of  Gossypium  have  been  de- 
scribed, most  botanists,  however,  reducing  the  species 
to  a  much  smaller  number.     It  is  quite  possible  that,  as 
a  result  of  modification  due  to  hybridization  and  climatic 
factors,  names  of  species  have  in  many  cases  been  need- 
lessly multiplied. 

Much  confusion  has  also  been  caused  as  a  result  of  mis- 
naming species.  For  example,  American  upland  cotton, 
(Gossypium  hirsutum)  has  frequently  been  referred  by 
American  authors  to  Gossypium  herbaceum,  a  species  of 
Asiatic  cotton.  Recent  studies  have  shown  these  two 
species  to  be  quite  dissimilar. 

36.  Classification    of    species.  —  The    large    number 
of  both  wild  and  cultivated  species  of  cotton  is  classified 
by  Watt 2  into  five  sections.    This  classification  is  based 
largely  on  the  following  characters:    (1)  the  position  and 

1  Duggar,  J.  F.,  "  Southern  Field  Crops,"  p.  275. 

2  Watt,  "  The  Wild  and  Cultivated  Cotton  Plants  of  the  World." 


32          FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT  • 

condition  of  the  bracteoles;  (2)  the  presence  or  absence 
of  nectar-yielding  glands;  (3)  the  nature  of  the  floss  and 
fuzz  that  surrounds  the  seed.  The  distinguishing  features 
of  each  section  are  given  below. 

Section  1.  —  Species  with  a  fuzz  but  no  floss.  This 
section  includes  a  number  of  wild  species,  none  of  which 
are  known  ever  to  have  been  cultivated.  The  bracteoles 
are  free,  and  the  seeds  are  covered  with  a  firmly  adhering 
fuzz,  but  there  is  no  trace  of  a  true  floss.  These  species 
of  cotton  are  said  to  be  distributed  from  the  western  coast 
tracts  and  islands  of  America  to  Australia. 

Section  2.  —  Fuzzy-seeded  cottons  with  united  bracte- 
oles, mostly  Asiatic  species,  comprising  both  perennial 
and  annual  shrubs.  In  all  the  species  of  this  section  the 
bracteoles  are  united  below  and  the  seeds  are  covered  with 
an  inner  coating  of  velvet  (fuzz)  and  an  outer  of  wool 
(floss).  With  one  or  two  exceptions  these  species  comprise 
cultivated  types..  The  two  most  important  species  in 
this  group  are  Indian  cotton  (Gossypium  obtusifolium)  and 
Bengal  cotton  (Gossypium  arboreum). 

Section  3.  —  Fuzzy-seeded  cottons  with  free  bracteoles. 
—  American  species  with  thickened  leaf-stems  and  often 
bearing  conspicuous  external  and  internal  glands.  The 
seeds  are  large  and  covered  with  a  distinct  and  complete 
fuzz  and  a  firmly  adherent  floss.  The  leaves  are  gen- 
erally large,  broad,  and  hairy.  Both  wild  and  culti- 
vated species  are  represented  in  this  section.  The 
two  most  important  species  are  American  upland  cotton 
(Gossypium  hirsutum)  and  Peruvian  cotton  (Gossypium 
peruvianum). 

Section  4.  —  Naked-seeded  cottons  with  the  bracteoles 
free  or  nearly  so  and  glands  conspicuous.  —  Both  Old 
and  New  World  forms  are  included  in  this  section.  These 


THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  COTTON          33 

are  mostly  cultivated  cottons,  the  most  important  species 
being  Sea  Island  cotton  (Gossypium  barbadense). 

Section  5.  —  Naked-seeded  cotton  with  bracteoles 
quite  free  and  floral  glands  absent.  —  So  far  as  known, 
only  one  species  belongs  to  this  section  (Gossypium 
Kirkii).  This  is  a  wild  cotton  found  in  east  and  central 
Africa.  It  has  never  been  seen  under  cultivation. 

37.  The  extensively  cultivated  species.  —  A  relatively 
large  number  of  cotton  species  have  been  described.    Only 
a  small  number  of  these  are  of  decided  agricultural  im- 
portance.   The  principal  species  are  grouped  into  Ameri- 
can and  Asiatic   cottons.     The  species  comprising  the 
American  group  are  Upland  cotton,  Sea  Island  cotton, 
and  Peruvian  cotton.     The  important  species  of  the  Asi- 
atic group  are  Indian  cotton  and  Bengal. 

38.  American  upland  cotton  (Gossypium  hirsutum).  — 
This  species  forms  more  than  99  per  cent  of  the  cotton 
crop  of  the  United  States.     It  embraces  both  the  short- 
staple  and  the  long-staple  varieties  of  upland  cotton.    The 
chief  difference  between  these  two  classes  of  cotton  lies 
in  the  length  of  the  lint,  that  of  short-staple  varying  from 
%  to  lx/8  inches,  while  the  long-staple  ranges  from  1^  to 
1J4  inches.     Between  these  classes  is  an  intermediate 
type  known  as  " Benders ",  or  "Rivers"  which  is  grown 
chiefly  on  bottom  land. 

The  plants  of  American  upland  cotton  are  erect,  rather 
coarse,  much-branched,  and  relatively  short-limbed. 
The  shoots,  leaf-stalks,  and  veins  are  clothed  with  an 
abundance  of  short  hairs,  giving  the  plants  a  dust-coated 
appearance.  The  leaves  are  generally  3-lobed,  the  lobes 
being  rather  short  and  blunt.  The  bolls  are  not  so  dis- 
tinctly pointed  as  in  Sea  Island  cotton  and  are  usually 
4-locked,  sometimes  5-locked.  The  seeds  are  large  and 


34          FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  COTTON          35 

covered  with  a  pronounced  fuzz  which  gives  them  a  green- 
ish or  grayish  color.  The  lint  adheres  very  firmly  to  the 
seeds,  necessitating  the  use  of  the  saw-gin  to  remove  it. 

It  is  thought  that  American  upland  cotton  originated 
in  Central  America  where  it  has  been  cultivated  since 
prehistoric  times.  Dewey  maintains  that  this  cotton  came 
originally  from  Mexico,  it  being  the  same  type  as  that 
cultivated  by  the  Moqui  Indians  long  before  the  coming* 
of  white  men  to  this  continent. 

39.  Sea  Island  cotton  (Gossypium  barbadense).  —  The 
growth  of  this  species  of  cotton  is  restricted  to  the 
James  and  Edisto  Islands  and  the  adjacent  mainlands 
along  the  coast  of  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Florida. 
The  best  grade  of  Sea  Island  cotton  is  produced  on  the 
two  islands  mentioned  where  the  farmers  have  practiced 
rigid  seed  selecting  for  many  years.  This  cotton  presents 
a  rather  uniform  type  throughout  the  area  to  which  it  is 
adapted,  not  having  been  split  up  into  distinct  types  or 
groups  of  varieties.  There  are  two  reasons  for  this.  The 
first  is  the  narrow  geographical  range  under  which  it  is 
grown,  while  the  second  is  the  fact  that  the  breeders  of 
Sea  Island  cotton  have  been  selecting  for  one  and  the  same 
purpose  —  to  obtain  staple  of  high  quality. 

In  habit  of  growth,  Sea  Island  cotton  differs  somewhat 
from  the  upland  cotton.  The  plants  are  rather  tall  and 
bear  long  slender  branches.  The  leaves  are  3-  to  5-lobed, 
the  lobes  being  deep  and  distinctly  pointed.  The  stems 
and  leaves  are  smooth  or  glabrous  with  the  exception  of  a 
very  scanty  coating  of  hairs  on  the  leaf-stems  and  veins. 
The  flowers  are  of  a  pale  yellow  color,  each  petal  bearing 
red  spots  near  its  base.  The  bolls  are  3-  sometimes  4- 
locked,  are  much  smaller  and  slenderer  than  those  of  up- 
land cotton,  and  are  more  or  less  pointed.  The  seeds  are 


36          FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

naked,  black,  ovate  in  shape  and  present  a  smooth  surface. 
The  lint  is  long  (1J^  to  2  inches),  silky,  pure  white,  and 
rather  easily  removed  from  the  seed. 

It  has  been  claimed  by  some  authors  that  Sea  Island 
cotton  is  indigenous  to  the  West  Indies,  especially  Barba- 
dos. However,  the  recent  and  thorough  studies  made  by 
Watt  indicate  that  Sea  Island  cotton  is  a  "  modern  devel- 
opment" and  that  there  is  no  evidence  to  show  that  it  is 
indigenous  to  Barbados.  On  the  other  hand,  Watt  makes 
reference  to  the  fact  that  this  species  of  cotton  is  so  closely 
associated  with  Gossypium  vitifolium,  a  vine-leaved,  long- 
staple  cotton  of  South  America,  as  to  suggest  that  the 
indigenous  habitat  is  somewhere  in  South  America. 

40.  Peruvian  cotton  (Gossypium  peruvianum). — This 
is  a  South  American  cotton  but  comprises  most  of  the 
important  varieties  now  grown  in  Egypt.    It  is  met  with 
in  nearly  all  important  cotton  growing  countries.    .Within 
recent  years  certain  varieties  of  this  cotton,  notably  Mit 
Afifi,  Yuma,  and  Jannovitch,  have  been  successfully  grown 
in  the  Colorado  River  region  in  southern  Arizona,  and  in 
southeastern  California. 

The  plants  of  this  species  resemble  Sea  Island  cotton 
in  habit  of  growth.  They  are  rather  tall  and  produce  long, 
flexible  branches.  The  flowers  are  sulfur-yellow.  The 
seeds  are  large  and,  unlike  Sea  Island  cotton,  are  covered 
with  a  distinct  gray  or  greenish  fuzz,  although  in  some 
varieties  the  seeds  are  reported  to  be  naked.  The  lint  is 
intermediate  in  length  between  American  upland  cotton 
and  Sea  Island  cotton,  and  is  usually  of  a  yellowish  or 
brownish  color.  A  few  varieties  of  Peruvian  cotton  pro- 
duce white  lint  and  are  thought  to  have  descended  in  part 
from  Sea  Island  cotton. 

41.  Indian    cotton    (Gossypium    obtusifolium).  —  This 


THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  COTTON          37 

is  a  distinctly  Oriental  species  comprising  the  chief  vari- 
eties of  cotton  grown  throughout  India.  It  is  also  met 
with  in  Ceylon  and  the  Malay  Archipelago. 

The  plants  are  rather  small,  shrubby,  and  much- 
branched,  the  branches  being  rather  slender.  The  leaves 
are  small  and  possess  from  three  to  five  obtuse  lobes. 
The  flowers  range  in  color  from  bright  yellow  to  purple. 
Indian  cotton  is  less  productive  than  American  short- 
staple  cotton  and  the  lint  is  of  an  inferior  grade. 

42.  Bengal  cotton  (Gossypium  arboreum).  —  This  is 
another  important  cotton  of  the  Orient,  especially  of 
India.  Ordinarily  the  plants  grow  to  be  much  larger  than 
any  of  the  other  important  species  described.  The  lint 
is  short  and  of  a  very  inferior  grade. 


CHAPTER  V 
COTTON  VARIETIES 

PROBABLY  more  than  100  distinct  varieties  of  cotton 
are  being  grown  in  the  southern  United  States.  The 
names  representing  different  varieties  will  far  exceed  this 
number  but  many  of  the  so-called  varieties  differ  only 
in  name. 

43.  What  is  a  variety?  —  There  is  much  difference  of 
opinion   as   to   what   constitutes   a  variety.     Generally 
speaking,  a  variety  may  be  denned  as  a  subdivision  of  a 
species,  the  individuals  of  which  differ  from  the  remainder 
of  the  species  in  one  or  more  of  the  typical  characters  and 
which  propagate  true  to  seed  except  for  simple  individual 
variations. 

Groups  of  individuals  derived  from  a  variety  which 
differ  from  the  original  variety  only  in  such  qualities  as 
yield  or  hardiness  and  do  not  differ  in  visible  taxonomic 
characters,  are  recognized  by  Webber  as  strains  rather 
than  varieties  or  races. 

44.  Origin  of  varieties.  —  The   existing  varieties  of 
cotton  owe  their  origin  mainly  to  the  following  causes : 

(1)  Natural  selection  as  affected  by  environment. 

(2)  Artificial  selection.    In  the  making  of  these  selec- 
tions two  general  methods  have  been  employed,  namely, 
(a)  the  method  often  spoken  of  as  "mass  selection"  in 
which  the  farmer  merely  selects  seed  for  his  general  crop 
from  the  best  plants  in  his  field,  no  attempt  being  made  to 
study  separately  the  progeny  from  the  individual  plants; 

38 


COTTON  VARIETIES  39 

(b)  the  method  in  which  the  progeny  of  a  single  ideal  plant 
is  made  the  basis  of  a  new  variety. 

(3)  Artificial  crosses  by  which  one  or  more  of  the  im- 
portant characters  of  both  parents  have  been  united  in  the 
progeny. 

(4)  Natural  crossing  resulting  largely  from  the  trans- 
ference of  pollen  by  insects  from  the  anthers  of  one  variety 
to  the  stigmas  of  another. 

Cotton  improvement  by  selection  and  crossing  is  taken 
up  more  in  detail  in  a  subsequent  chapter. 

45.  Stability  of  varieties.  —  Cotton  varieties  are  sel- 
dom kept  pure.    It  is  the  common  tendency  for  any  im- 
proved variety  to  degenerate  if  consistent  selection  is  not 
carried  on  every  year.    This  degeneration  is  partially  due 
to  the  rapid  multiplication  of  undesirable  plants. 

When  two  different  varieties  of  cotton  are  grown  in 
close  proximity,  a  certain  amount  of  crossing  takes  place 
for  the  reason  that  insects  carry  pollen  from  flower  to 
flower.  This  tends  to  break  the  stability  of  both  varieties. 

46.  Influence  of  soil  and  climate.  —  It  is  a  well-known 
fact  that  a  variety  of  cotton  when  grown  for  a  number  of 
years  under  a  given  set  of  conditions,  will  gradually  adjust 
itself  to  its  surroundings.    The  time  required  for  complete 
adjustment  to  take  place  varies  with  different  varieties. 
Some  varieties,  of  which  King's  Improved  is  an  example, 
require  only  one  or  two  years  in  which  to  become  adjusted 
to  almost  any  part  of  the  cotton-belt.    Others  require  from 
three  to  six  years. 

Some  varieties  are  especially  fitted  to  certain  conditions 
of  soil  and  climate  and  usually  are  not  profitable  when 
grown  in  new  localities.  There  are  even  varieties  best 
adapted  to  poor  lands.  It  is  claimed  that  Beat-All,  a 
variety  very  popular  in  some  parts  of  Georgia  when  grown 


40 


FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


on  poor  land,  is  not  profitable  on  rich  land.  In  fact,  when 
tested  on  the  rich  soil  at  the  Georgia  Experiment  Station, 
it  ranked  24th  in  1906  and  26th  in  1907. 

There  is  experimental  evidence  to  the  effect  that  soil 
and  climate  regulate  with  considerable  uniformity  such 
characters  as  the  number  of  bolls  and  seed  per  pound  of 
lint  cotton,  and  also  the  percentage  of  lint.  Data  per- 
taining to  these  characters,  as  exhibited  by  different 
varieties  of  cotton  sent  out  by  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  in  1907  and  grown  at  four  state 
experiment  stations,  are  given  below: 

TABLE  4.  —  RESULTS  OF  TESTS  OF  FIVE  VARIETIES  OF  COTTON 
SHOWING  THE  RELATIVE  NUMBER  AND  SIZE  OF  BOLLS  AND  SEEDS 
AND  THE  PERCENTAGE  OF  LINT  TO  SEED  WHEN  THE  PLANTS  WERE 
GROWN  IN  DIFFERENT  STATES  1 


VARIETY 

BOLLS  PER 

POUND 

SEEDS  PER 

POUND 

PERCENTAGE  OF 

LINT 

La. 

No. 

58 
48 
74 
53 

78 

62 

Ala.  |  Ga. 

Tex. 

No. 
90 
70 
105 
71 
91 

91 

La. 

No. 
3650 
2670 
4050 
3540 
4160 

Ala. 

No. 
4025 
2835 
5050 
3630 
4970 

Ga. 

No. 
3860 
3260 
5380 
3700 
5260 

Tex. 

No. 
4160 
3780 
5060 
3660 
4620 

La. 

P.ct. 
38.3 
31.9 
33.5 
30.0 
29.0 

32.5 

Ala. 

P.ct. 
36.7 
29.8 
35.8 
32.4 
30.6 

33.1 

Ga. 

P.ct. 
39.3 
35.8 
39.6 
33.2 
31.5 

35.9 

Tex. 

P.ct. 
30.9 
31.3 
31.7 
31.2 
25.4 

30.1 

Cook's  Improved  . 
Corley  Wonderful  . 
Gold-Standard  .  .  . 
Pride  of  Georgia  .  . 
Sunflower  

No. 
61 
54 
82 
61 
90 

70 

No. 

64 
58 
92 
68 
98 

76 

Average  

3614 

4102 

4292 

4256 

Without  exception,  the  bolls  of  all  varieties  were  very 
small  at  the  Texas  Station,  gradually  increasing  in  size 
at  the  Georgia  and  Alabama  Stations  and  were  largest 
in  every  case  when  grown  at  the  Louisiana  Station.  Also, 
the  seed  were  smallest  in  Texas,  following  the  same  order 
as  did  the  size  of  bolls.  The  percentage  of  lint  was  highest 
at  the  Georgia  Station,  and,  in  the  main,  lowest  at  the 
Texas  Station.  These  results  indicate  quite  clearly  the 


Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Bui.  163,  p.  13. 


COTTON  VARIETIES 


41 


importance  of  soil  and  climate  as  factors  influencing  the 
variability  of  cotton. 

47.  Classification  of  varieties.  —  It  is  very  difficult  to 
classify  cotton  varieties  owing  to  the  readiness  with  which 
they  are  cross-fertilized  and  the  great  range  of  variation 
of  the  individual  plants  within  a  variety.     The  most 
satisfactory  classification  of  Ameri- 
can upland  varieties  known  to  the 

author  is  that  proposed  by  Duggar 
of  the  Alabama  Experiment  Sta- 
tion which  is  given  below: 

Group  1.  —  Cluster  type. 

Group  2.  —  Semi-cluster  type. 

Group  3.  —  Rio  Grande  type,  of 
which  the  Peterkin  is  an  example. 
.  Group  4.  —  The   early  varieties 
of  the  King  type. 

Group  5.  —  The  Big-boll  type. 

Group  6.  —  The     Long-limbed 
type. 

Group  7.  —  Intermediate  varie- 
ties. 

,  Group  8.  —  Long-staple  Upland 
varieties. 

48.  Cluster  type  (Fig.  8).  —  The 
plants  of  this  type  possess  the  char- 
acteristic property  of  producing  one 
or  more  long  basal  limbs  with  ex- 
tremely   short     spur-like    fruiting 
limbs    on   the   middle    and   upper 

parts  of  the  main-stems.  There  is  a  tendency  for  the 
bolls  and  leaves  to  be  borne  in  clusters  as  a  result  of 
the  shortening  of  the  internodes  of  the  primary  and  fruit- 


FIG.  8.  —  Plant  of  the 
Jackson  Limbless  va- 
riety of  cotton  repre- 
senting the  Cluster 
group. 


42 


FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


ing  branches.  The  bolls  are  seldom  large;  the  leaves 
on  the  main-stem  are  very  large  while  those  on  the 
fruiting  limbs  are  much  reduced  in  size.  The  seeds  are 
small. 

The  varieties  of  the  cluster  type  are  adapted  to  rich 
bottom  soils  such  as  are  found  in  the  valleys  of  many 

streams  in  Georgia, 
Alabama,  and  Mis- 
sissippi. The  possi- 
bility that  these  va- 
rieties will  make  a 
too  rank  growth  at 
the  expense  of  the 
lint  production  is 
very  much  less  than 
with  most  other 
types.  However, 
the  cluster  cottons 
have  decreased  in 
popularity  among 
farmers  in  recent 
years  as  a  result  of 
(a)  the  small  size  of 

FIG.  9.  —  Plant  of  the  Hawkins  variety  of  the  bolls,  (b)  the 
cotton  representing  the  Semi-cluster  group.  .  ... 

readiness  with  which 

the  squares  and  young  bolls  are  shed  during  unfavorable 
weather  and  (c)  the  difficulty  of  picking  the  cotton  without 
including  considerable  trash. 

49.  Semi-cluster  type  (Fig.  9).  —  It  is  thought  by  many 
that  varieties  of  this  type  form  a  hybrid  group.  The  length 
of  the  fruiting  limbs  is  somewhat  intermediate  between 
the  cluster  cottons  and  the  more  commonly  grown  types. 
While  the  bolls  and  leaves  are  not  borne  in  clusters,  they 


COTTON  VARIETIES 


43 


are  much  closer  together  as  a  rule  than  in  any  of  the  types 
later  described  in  this  classification.  The  size  of  bolls 
and  seed  is  quite  variable. 

50.  Rio  Grande  type.  —  The  plants  of  this  group  are 
slender  in  growth.    The  fruiting  branches  are  long-jointed, 


FIG.  10.  —  Plant  of  the  Peterkin  variety  of  cotton, 
representing  the  Peterkin  group. 

slender,  and  rather  straight.    The  characters  that  serve 
most  to  distinguish  the  Rio  Grande  from  other  types  are 

(1)  a  high  percentage  of  lint,  usually  35  to  40  per  cent; 

(2)  small,   nearly  naked,   dark-colored  seeds;   (3)   bolls 
medium  to  very  small  in  size,  the  locks  of  cotton  remain- 
ing rather  compact  for  some  time  after  the  bolls  open. 
This  group  is  named  for  an  early  variety  which  was  quite 


44 


FIELD  CROPS,  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


similar   to   the  now  commonly  grown   Peterkin  cotton 
(Fig.  10). 

51.  Early  varieties  of  the  King  type  (Fig.  11).  —  The 
varieties  of  this  group  have  been  developed  largely  in  the 
northern  section  of  the  cotton-belt  where  the  growing  sea- 
son is  relatively  short.  Correlated  with  earliness  in  these 


FIG.  11.  —  Plant  of  the  Shine  variety  of  cotton, 
representing  the  Early  group. 

varieties  are  (a)  small  plants,  (b)  relatively  short-jointed 
fruiting  limbs,  and  (c)  small  bolls.  While  the  plants  are 
small,  they  present  a  somewhat  slender,  rather  than  stocky 
appearance.  The  leaves  are  small  to  medium  in  size 
and  more  deeply  lobed  than  those  of  big-boll  cotton.  The 
seed  are  small  and  covered  with  a  greenish  or  brownish 
gray  fuzz.  The  lint  is  usually  rather  short  but  of  good 
strength.  This  group  comprises  the  earliest  of  the  com- 


COTTON  VARIETIES 


45 


monly  grown  American  upland  cottons.    While  earliness 
is  generally  considered  as  a  desirable  character,  the  small 


FIG.  12.  —  Plant  of  the  Truitt  variety  of  cotton, 
representing  the  Big-boll  group. 

size  of  the  bolls  and  the  short  lint  are  undesirable  char- 
acters. 

52.  The  Big-boll  type  (Fig.  12).  — The  distinguishing 
character  of  this  group  is  the  size  of  the  boll,  often  meas- 
ured by  the  weight  of  dry  seed  cotton  contained  in  the  boll. 
The  largest  bolls  contain  from  10.5  to  11.5  grams  of  seed 
cotton  or  approximately  40  bolls  to  the  pound.  The  size  of 


46          FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

the  bolls  in  this  group  varies  with  the  variety,  soil  and  cli- 
mate. The  smallest  bolls  produce  approximately  6.5  grams 
of  seed  cotton  each,  requiring  about  68  bolls  to  yield  a 
pound  of  seed  cotton. 

The  plants  are  rather  vigorous  growers.  The  limbs 
are  large  and  short-jointed,  giving  the  plants  a  stocky 
appearance.  The  leaves  are  large,  with  broad,  short 
lobes;  seeds  large,  fuzzy,  and  dark  green  or  brownish  gray. 

An  important  subdivision  of  the  big-boll  group  includes 
the  big-boll  storm-proof  varieties  developed  west  of  the 
Mississippi,  more  especially  in  Texas.  The  leading  vari- 
eties in  this  subdivision  are  Triumph,  Rowden,  and  Texas 
Storm-proof.  The  development  of  these  varieties  has 
taken  place  on  the  western  plains  where  cotton  is  more 
subject  to  severe  storms  than  elsewhere  in  the  cotton- 
belt. 

53.  The  long-limbed  type.  —  The  varieties    of  this 
type  have  been  more  or  less  abandoned  because  they  are 
late  and  not  very  prolific.     The  most  important  repre- 
sentative of  this  group  is  the  Petit  Gulf  variety,  which 
at  one  time  was  very  popular.    It  often  happens  that  the 
Petit  Gulf  cotton  is  so  badly  mixed  with  other  cottons 
as  to  make  it  a  poor  representative  of  the  long-limbed 
type. 

54.  Intermediate  varieties.  —  No  description  can  be 
given  of  the  varieties  in  this  group.     Those  varieties  in 
which  the  characters  of  two  or  more  groups  are  combined 
so  as  to  make  it  impossible  to  place  them  in  any  of  the  well- 
defined  types  are  classed  as  " intermediate  varieties"  for 
convenience. 

55.  Long-staple  upland  varieties.  —  The  distinguish- 
ing character  of  this  group  is  the  length  of  the  lint  which 
varies  from  13/16  to  1%  inches  (30  to  45  mm.).    The  plants 


COTTON  VARIETIES 


47 


are  rather  tall  and  slender  with  few  or  no  primary  limbs. 
The  bolls  are  small  to  medium  in  size  with  3  to  5  locules, 
and  the  lint  is  borne  in  rather  closely  matted  locks. 

It  is  claimed  that  a  few  varieties  of  this  group  have  been 
produced  by  cross- 
ing upland  and 
Sea  Island  cotton. 
However,  in  most 
cases  the  varieties 
have  been  pro- 
duced by  straight 
selection.  Several 
varieties,  of  which 
Griffin  and  Colum- 
bia are  examples, 
have  been  devel- 
oped from  the  big- 
boll  group. 

The  upland 
long-staple  varie- 
ties are  best 
adapted  to  fertile 
river  bottom  soils. 
They  are  grown 
rather  extensively 
along  the  Red 
River  in  Arkansas 
and  Texas,  and 
along  the  Mississippi  in  Mississippi  and  Louisiana. 
The  yield  is  often  lower  than  that  obtained  from 
the  upland  varieties  but  the  greater  value  of  the 
lint  usually  more  than  offsets  the  difference  in 
yield.  Examples  of  the  long-staple  group  are  Griffin, 


FIG.  13.  —  Plant  of  the  Allen  variety  of  cotton 
representing  the  upland  long-staple  group. 


48          FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

Allen  (Fig.  13),  Columbia,  Flemming,  Moon,  and 
Peeler. 

56.  High  ranking  varieties.  —  Extended  variety  tests 
conducted  in  all  of  the  cotton  producing  states  furnish 
conclusive  evidence  that  there  is  no  one  best  variety  of 
cotton  for  all  conditions.  The  readiness  with  which  the 
cotton  plant  is  modified  by  such  factors  as  length  of  grow- 
ing season,  soil  type,  and  moisture  supply,  has  resulted 
in  the  development  of  varieties  particularly  adapted  to 
more  or  less  local  conditions.  On  the  western  plains  of 
Texas  and  Oklahoma  the  storm-proof  varieties  are  most 
profitable.  In  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee  where  the 
growing  season  is  short,  the  early  cottons  are  largely 
grown.  Long-staple  upland  cottons  are  successfully  grown 
only  on  rich  soils  such  as  are  found  in  the  Mississippi 
valley. 

According  to  information  furnished  the  author  by  the 
directors  and  agronomists  of  southern  Experiment  Stations 
the  following  are  representatives  of  the  high  ranking 
varieties  for  the  different  states: 


LIST  OF  HIGH  RANKING  COTTON  VARIETIES 

Alabama  Cook 

Cleveland 
Covington-Toole 
Poulnot 
Layton 

Arkansas  Trice 

Rublee 
Cleveland 
King's  Improved 
Simpkin's  Prolific 


COTTON  VARIETIES  49 


Georgia  Triumph 

Cleveland 
Poulnot 
Texas  Big-boll 
Sunbeam 

Louisiana  Simpkins 

King 
Triumph 
Rublee 
Toole 

Cook's  Improved 
Bank  Account 
Money  Maker 


Cleveland 

Cooke 

Toole 

Russell 

King 


North  Carolina  (Raleigh  Sta.)  Culpepper's  Improved 

Cooke's  Improved 
BroadwelTs  Double  Jointed 
Hawkins  Extra  Prolific 
Cleveland's  Big-boll 

North  Carolina  Russell's  Big-boll 

(Coastal  Plains  Region)          Shine's  Early  Prolific 
Brown's  No.  1 
Cook's  Improved 
King's  Improved 
Sugar  Loaf 

Oklahoma  Mebane 

Cook's  Improved 
Texas  Storm-proof 
Rowden 


50          FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

South  Carolina  Cook 

Rogers 
Simpkins 
Toole 
Cleveland 

Tennessee  Trice 

Cleveland  Big-boll 
Wilson's  Improved 
Petway's  Improved  Prolific 
Perry 

Texas  Triumph 

Rowden 

Alabama  Wonder 
Bank  Account 
Burnett 

BRIEF  DESCRIPTION  OF  SOME  TYPICAL  VARIETIES  REPRESENTING 
DIFFERENT  GROUPS 

CLUSTER  TYPE 

Dickson  Improved.  —  Early  maturing;  one  to  three  basal  limbs 
with  fruiting  limbs  reduced  to  spurs  of  2  to  6  inches  in  length.  Leaves 
large;  bolls  small,  rounded  in  shape  and  clustered;  seeds  small, 
brownish  gray;  lint  of  medium  length.  Rather  extensively  grown 
over  the  cotton-belt. 

Dillon.  —  A  wilt-resistant  variety  developed  by  selection  from 
Jackson  Limbless  by  W.  A.  Norton  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture.  Plants  somewhat  similar  to  Dickson  Improved,  but 
resistant  to  wilt  and  storms.  Popular  in  the  coastal  plain  belt  from 
North  Carolina  to  Alabama. 

Jackson.  —  Introduced  in  1894  by  T-.  W.  Jackson  of  Atlanta, 
Georgia.  Plants  rather  tall  and  bolls  closely  clustered;  leaves  very 
large.  Popular  on  rich  soils  where  other  types  produce  limbs  and 
leaves  at  the  expense  of  fruit. 

SEMI-CLUSTER  TYPE 

Rublee.  —  Developed  by  C.  A.  Rublee,  Seago,  Texas.  An  early 
maturing  variety,  claimed  to  be  well  adapted  to  boll-weevil  condi- 


COTTON  VARIETIES  51 

tions.  Bolls  medium  to  small  in  size;  lint  short;  seeds  of  medium  size 
and  of  greenish  color.  This  variety  is  grown  to  some  extent -in  north- 
east Texas. 

Hawkins1  Extra  Prolific.  —  A  standard  semi-cluster  variety 
developed  by  W.  B.  Hawkins,  Nona,  Georgia.  Plants  early,  tall, 
pyramidal  in  shape.  Bolls  partially  clustered,  small  to  medium  in 
size;  lint  short;  seeds  small  and  of  brownish  gray  color. 

Boyd  Prolific.  —  Originated  by  a  Mr.  Boyd  of  Mississippi.  This 
is  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  semi-cluster  varieties  and  now  exists  hi  a 
rather  badly  mixed  state.  Some  strains  of  Boyd  cotton  are  more 
similar  to  upland  long-staple  than  to  semi-cluster  cottons.  The 
true  Boyd  prolific  possesses  only  one  or  two  long  limbs  and  numerous 
irregularly  jointed  fruiting  branches. 

RIO   GRANDE   TYPE 

Layton.  —  This  variety  is  a  strain  of  Peterkin  developed  by  R.  D. 
Layton  of  South  Carolina.  The  plants  are  rather  slender  with  long, 
drooping  branches.  Bolls  rather  small  and  mostly  5-locked.  The 
lint  is  short  but  the  percentage  is  high;  seeds  small  and  of  brownish 
gray  color.  A  good  poor  land  cotton. 

Took.  —  Also  a  strain  of  Peterkin  developed  by  W.  W.  Toole  of 
Augusta,  Georgia.  The  plants  are  somewhat  similar  to  Layton,  but 
with  a  slight  similarity  to  the  semi-cluster  cottons.  Bolls  medium 
in  size.  Lint  medium  in  length,  strong,  and  the  percentage  high.  A 
good  rich  land  cotton. 

Money  Maker.  —  Plants  of  medium  height,  bearing  rather  slender, 
rather  long-jointed  limbs.  Bolls  small;  lint  short.  Distributed 
throughout  sections  of  Alabama,  Arkansas,  Georgia,  Louisiana,  and 
Mississippi. 

KING   OR   EARLY  VARIETIES 

King's  Improved.  —  Developed  from  Sugar-loaf  cotton  by  T.  J. 
King  of  Louisburg,  North  Carolina.  Plants  slender  with  slender, 
short-jointed  fruiting  limbs.  Leaves  and  bolls  small;  seeds  small; 
lint  short.  This  is  a  very  early  variety  of  cotton  and  is  best  adapted 
to  the  northern  portions  of  the  cotton-belt,  especially  North  Car- 
olina and  Tennessee. 

Simpkins.  —  An  early  variety  developed  from  King  by  W.  A. 
Simpkins  of  Raleigh,  North  Carolina.  Bolls  somewhat  larger  than 
King  and  also  bearing  a  higher  percentage  of  lint. 


52          FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

BIG-BOLL   TYPE 

Cook's  Improved.  —  Originated  by  J.  R.  Cook,  Ellaville,  Georgia. 
A  rather  long-branched,  large-boiled  cotton,  although  the  type  is 
very  variable.  Often  the  plants  are  short-branched;  or  many  of  the 
branches  are  of  medium  length.  The  lint  is  short  but  the  percentage 
is  high.  This  variety  is  especially  susceptible  to  boll-rot  or  to  injury 
by  storm. 

Cleveland.  —  This  variety  is  the  result  of  25  years  of  selection  by 
J.  R.  Cleveland  of  Decatur,  Mississippi.  This  variety  represents  a 
rather  variable  type,  some  of  the  plants  resembling  the  semi-cluster 
cottons.  Limbs  short-jointed,  bolls  large;  lint  of  medium  length. 

BIG-BOLL   STORM-PROOF  TYPE 

Triumph.  —  This  variety  was  developed  from  the  Boykin  Storm- 
proof cotton  by  A.  D.  Mebane,  of  Lockhart,  Texas.  Because  of  the 
relative  earliness,  the  large  size  of  the  boll,  and  the  storm-proof  char- 
acter of  this  cotton,  it  is  the  most  widely  grown  variety  west  of  the 
Mississippi  River.  The  percentage  of  lint  is  high  for  cotton  of  this 
group. 

Rowdeu.  —  This  variety  was  developed  from  Bohemian  cotton  by 
the  Rowden  Brothers,  Wills  Point,  Texas.  Next  to  Triumph  it  is  the 
most  extensively  grown  variety  in  Texas.  It  is  medium  early  in 
maturity  and  is  well  adapted  to  boll-weevil  conditions.  The  plants 
have  a  stocky  appearance;  the  joints  are  regular  and  of  medium 
length,  the  branches  and  usually  the  whole  plant  drooping  beneath 
the  weight  of  mature  bolls,  which  hang  downward  when  ripe. 

UPLAND   LONG-STAPLE   COTTON 

Allen  Long-staple.  —  Developed  by  J.  B.  Allen,  Port  Gibson, 
Mississippi.  Plants  tall  and  pyramidal  in  shape,  somewhat  semi- 
cluster  in  habit  of  growth  with  irregular  jointed  fruiting  branches. 
Bolls  medium  to  small;  lint  very  long  and  silky;  seeds  medium  to 
small  in  size. 

Black  Rattler.  —  This  variety  is  grown  quite  extensively  along  the 
Mississippi  River.  It  is  claimed  to  have  been  developed  in  Bolivar 
County,  Mississippi.  The  plants  grow  to  be  rather  large  and  produce 
from  one  to  three  slender  limbs.  Bolls  small,  pointed,  with  a  very 
sharp  bur.  The  lint  is  rather  short  for  a  long-staple  cotton  averaging 
about  31  mm.  or  l7/32  inches. 


CHAPTER  VI 
COTTON  BREEDING 

IT  has  been  only  within  recent  years  that  the  farmers' 
interest  in  cotton  breeding  has  been  stimulated.  Even 
now  the  great  mass  of  cotton  farmers  rely  almost  wholly 
upon  better  methods  of  tillage,  fertilization,  and  drainage 
for  increased  yields.  "Good  seed"  is  the  least  appreciated 
of  the  important  factors  in  cotton  production. 

There  is  probably  no  field  crop  more  easily  modified  by 
breeding  methods  or  by  environment  than  is  cotton. 
The  first  great  triumph  in  securing  a  desirable  modification 
of  the  cotton  plant  was  the  production  of  annual  crops 
from  the  perennial  tree-cottons.  This  permitted  cotton 
cultivation  to  be  carried  beyond  the  natural  geographical 
area  of  the  genus,  thus  vastly  increasing  the  possibility  of 
its  production. 

57.  Reasons  for  breeding  cotton.  —  The   object   of 
cotton  breeding  is  the  production  of  strains  or  varieties 
that  are  better  adapted  to  specific  conditions  or  require- 
ments.    The  ultimate  benefits  are  increased  yield  and 
better  quality.     The  mere  production  of  new  kinds  of 
cotton  without  regard  to  merit  is  not  cotton  breeding  in 
its  truest  sense. 

58.  Need   of   improvement   in    cotton.  —  The   great 
number  of  cotton  farmers  use  any  cotton  seed  without 
regard  to  variety  and  without  practicing  any  selection. 
This  seed  as  taken  from  the  gin  is,  in  most  cases,  badly 
mixed  and  of.  very  low  quality.    Much  of  it  has  been  ob- 

53 


54          FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

tained  from  the  last  picking  and  is  immature,  or  is  from 
late  plants  of  inferior  type.  These  careless  practices  have 
caused  a  very  rapid  deterioration  in  cotton.  Even  the 
most  promising  varieties  soon  "run  out"  unless  some 
attempt  is  made  to  propagate  their  good  qualities.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  "on  the  seed  depends  the  crop." 
The  average  cotton  farmer  finds  the  margin  of  profits  from 
his  crop  very  low.  He  can  ill  afford  to  neglect  the  proper 
selection  of  the  seed  which  he  expects  to  plant. 

59.  Start  with  the  best  variety.  —  The  cotton  farmer 
should  make  sure  that  he  starts  his  breeding  with  the  best 
available  foundation  stock.     This  necessitates  a  carefully 
conducted  variety  test  in  which  as  many  of  the  standard 
varieties  as  possible  should  be  included.    The  result  of  this 
test  should  indicate  the  variety  that  is  best  adapted  to 
the  local  conditions  present  on  his  plantation.     For  this 
test,  a  plot  of  land  should  be  selected  that  exhibits  as  little 
variation  as  possible  in  productiveness.     Each  variety 
should  occupy  a  plot  consisting  of  at  least  two  rows  of  not 
less  than  150  feet  in  length.     In  order  to  check  the  in- 
equality in  soil  productiveness,  seed  from  the  same  variety 
should  be  planted  on  every  third  plot.    The  relative  yields 
of  these  check  plots  will  show  to  what  extent  soil  produc- 
tiveness has  influenced  the  yields  of  the  different  varieties. 
The  number  of  plants  to  a  plot,  as  well  as  cultural  condi- 
tions, should  be  the  same  for  all  plots.    Harvest  and  care- 
fully weigh  the  seed  cotton  from  each  variety. 

60.  Qualities  sought  for  in  breeding  cotton.  —  The 
qualities  that  determine  the  value  of  a  cotton  plant  are  of 
two  classes:  (1)  those  which  influence  yield;  (2)  those  which 
determine  quality.     In  order  materially  to  increase  the 
yield  of  a  cotton  variety,  it  is  essential  that  special  atten- 
tion be  given  to  the  individual  plants,  particularly  with 


COTTON  BREEDING  55 

reference  to  their  structure,  vigor,  and  rapidity  of  setting 
and  developing  the  squares  and  bolls. 

61.  Qualities  associated  with  high  yield.  —  While  it 
is  true  that  the  plants  of  each  distinct  variety  conform 
more  or  less  to  what  is  often  termed  "variety  type,"  there 
are  a  number  of  qualities  that  experience  has  shown  to  be 
rather  closely  correlated  with  high  yield.  The  most  im- 
portant of  these  are  outlined  below: 

(1)  The  primary  branches  and  first  fruiting  limbs  must 
be  borne  rather  low  on  the  main-stem.    A  cotton  plant  that 
bears  its  first  limbs  high  up  on  the  main-stem  is  usually 
late  and  unproductive. 

(2)  The  internodes  of  the  main-stem,  the  primary  limbs, 
and  the  fruiting  limbs  must  be  short.     They  should  not 
exceed  from  2  to  3  inches,  especially  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
plant.    This  insures  the  production  of  a  large  number  of 
nodes  from  which  either  bolls  or  fruiting  limbs  are  pro- 
duced. 

(3)  The  bolls  must  be  relatively  large.     Aside  from 
giving  a  larger  yield,  an  increase  in  the  size  of  bolls  in- 
creases the  ease  and  rapidity  of  picking,  and  less  trash" 
will  be  gathered  with  the  cotton.    Large  bolls  are  also  more 
storm-resistant  than  small  bolls. 

(4)  In  weevil-infested  districts  it  is  essential  that  after 
the  crop  has  reached  the  fruiting  stage,  the  squares  be  set 
and  the  bolls  developed  in  a  short  length  of  tune.    Farmers 
often  use  the  wrong  standards  for  measuring  earliness, 
such  as  dates  of  planting,  the  opening  of  the  first  bolls,  or 
the  date  of  securing  the  first  bale.    A  cotton  variety  that 
opens  its  bolls  first  is  not  necessarily  the  most  productive 
under  weevil  conditions. 

(5)  The  plants  must  be  resistant  to  such  diseases  as 
wilt,   root-knot,   and  anthracnose. .    The   United   States 


5(3  FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

Department  of  Agriculture  has  demonstrated  that  disease 
resistant  varieties  of  cotton  can  be  produced  by  selection. 

(6)  The  plants  should  yield  as  large  a  percentage  of  lint 
as  possible.  From  38  to  40  per  cent  is  considered  a  high 
percentage  of  lint.  Most  varieties  produce  a  much  smaller 
percentage. 

Plants  that  have  a  tendency  to  produce  excessive  leaf 
growth  or  to  produce  a  large  percentage  of  their  bolls 
near  the  top  of  the  plant  or  on  the  outer  ends  of  the 
branches  should  be  discarded.  Such  plants  are  late  and 
unproductive. 

62.  Characters  that  determine  quality.  —  It  is  not 
sufficient  to  increase  the  yield  of  seed  cotton  to  the  acre. 
Profits  are  determined  by  the  price'  received  as  well  as  by 
the  yield  per  acre.  The  quality  of  the  fiber  is  an  im- 
portant factor  in  the  determination  of  its  value.  The 
following  characters  are  important  in  determining  quality: 

(1)  Length  of  fiber.  —  Cotton  fiber  should  be  at  least  an 
inch  in  length.    This  length  of  fiber  is  in  greatest  demand 
as  it  supplies  the  needs  of  the  general  purpose  market.    For 
the  manufacture  of  high  grade  fabrics,  longer  staple,  such 
as  is  produced  by  Sea  Island  or  upland  long-staple  cotton 
is  required.    However,  the  quantity  called  for  is  relatively 
small  as  compared  with  the  requirement  for  1-inch  staple. 
A  plant  producing  fiber  of  less  than  one  inch  in  length 
should  be  discarded. 

(2)  Uniformity  in  length  of  fiber.  —  Uniformity  has  a 
direct  commercial  value  in  cotton.    An  intermixture  of 
short  and  long  fiber  has  the  effect  of  greatly  reducing  the 
value  of  the  entire  lot.    It  results  in  an  undue  amount  of 
waste  in  manufacturing.    The  length  of  the  fiber  not  only 
varies  greatly  as  between  the  individual  plants  of  an  un- 
improved variety,  but  different  lengths  of  lint  are  often 


COTTON  BREEDING 


57 


produced  on  different  parts  of  the  same  plant  and  even 
on  the  same  seed.  This  objectionable  character  can  be 
corrected  by  breeding  (Fig.  14). 

(3)  Strength  of  fiber.  —  Much  variation  exists  between 
cotton  plants  as  regards  the  strength  of  the  fiber  produced. 


FIG.  14.  —  Cotton  seeds  with  fibers  attached.  A  and  B  —  cotton  seeds 
with  fibers  combed  out  to  show  uniformity  and  non-uniformity  in 
the  length  of  the  fibers.  C  —  Lock  of  Griffin  cotton  stretched  so  as 
to  show  joints  of  origin  of  longer  fibers  —  a,  6,  c. 

Any  plant  should  be  rejected  that  shows  itself  distinctly 
inferior  in  strength  of  lint. 

(4)  Color  and  cleanliness  of  fiber.  —  Cotton  lint  should 
have  a  rich,  bright,  creamy  color  and  should  be  free  from 
trash  and  dirt. 

63.  Well-defined  ideal  necessary.  —  Before  the  cotton- 
grower  attempts  the  selection  of  his  seed  for  breeding  pur- 
poses, it  is  essential  that  he  have  well  fixed  in  his  mind  the 
important  qualities  sought  for  in  breeding  cotton.  In 
other  words,  he  should  keep  in  mind  a  mental  picture  of 


58          FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

his  ideal  plant.  If  this  is  not  done,  there  is  danger  that 
lack  of  uniformity  among  the  plants  selected  will  exist, 
due  to  the  fact  that  certain  plants  will  be  selected  for  one 
character  and  others  for  another.  Little  can  be  accom- 
plished by  such  promiscuous  selection. 

64.  Methods  of  improving  cotton.  —  At  least  three 
methods  are  more  or  less  applicable  to  the  improvement 
of  cotton.    They  are  (1)  the  careful  and  systematic  selec- 
tion and  progeny-testing  of  superior  plants;  (2)  hybridizing 
or  crossing  different  varieties  or  species  with  the  object 
of  securing  an  intermingling  and  fixing  of  points  of  merit; 
(3)  acclimatization  of  approved  stocks  from  one  country 
or  locality  to  another. 

THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  COTTON  BY  SELECTION 

Systematic  selection  is  easily  the  most  important  factor 
in  the  improvement  of  cotton.  To  employ  this  factor 
successfully  the  breeder  must  be  able  readily  to  detect 
and  choose  the  best  plants,  even  when  a  large  number  of 
individuals  are  examined.  This  requires  a  thorpugh 
knowledge  of  the  points  that  go  to  make  up  an  ideal  cotton 
plant. 

65.  Selection    of    foundation    stock.  —  After    having 
determined  by  variety  tests  the  best  variety  for  a  given 
locality  the  breeder  will,  by  careful  study,  satisfy  himself 
as  to  what  type  of  plant  of  this  variety  is  best.    He  is  then 
ready  to  make  selections  which  are  to  furnish  his  founda- 
tion stock. 

The  selection  is  best  made  immediately  before  the  first 
picking.  The  picking  should  be  delayed  until  a  rather 
large  percentage  of  the  bolls  are  open.  By  walkihg  slowly 
through  the  field,  examining  the  plants  of  each  row,  the 
breeder  should  be  able  readily  to  detect  those  plants  which 


COTTON  BREEDING  59 

possess  exceptional  excellence.  These  good  plants  should 
be  marked  by  tying  a  white  rag  to  one  of  the  upper 
branches.  The  breeder's  problem  is  to  select  in  this  man- 
ner the  two  or  three  hundred  most  desirable  plants  in  his 
entire  crop.  When  this  has  been  done,  the  selected  plants 
should  then  be  given  a  more  detailed  examination. 

This  second  examination  should  comprise  not  only  a 
more  detailed  examination  of  the  general  structure  of  the 
plant  but  also  an  examination  of  lint  with  reference  to  its 
abundance  and  quality.  Several  seeds  from  different  bolls 
on  the  same  plant  should  be  procured,  the  fiber  being 
carefully  parted  down  the  middle  of  each  seed  and  combed- 
out  straight  by  means  of  a  small  aluminum  pocket  comb. 
After  this  has  been  done,  the  amount  of  lint  on  the  seed 
and  the  length,  uniformity,  and  strength  of  the  lint  can  be 
easily  judged.  All  plants  should  be  discarded  that  are 
found  to  be  very  inferior  with  regard  to  any  of  these  char- 
acters. As  a  result  of  this  second  examination,  the  number 
of  select  plants  will  probably  be  reduced  to  75  or  100.  Be- 
fore the  seed  cotton  is  picked  from  the  select  plants,  they 
should  be  carefully  labeled  and  numbered.  The  seed  cot- 
ton from  each  plant  should  be  placed  in  a  small  paper  bag 
which  is  given  the  same  number  as  that  of  the  plant. 
These  same  bags  can  be  taken  to  the  field  for  the  second 
picking,  being  careful  that  all  of  the  seed  cotton  secured 
from  each  plant  is  kept  to  itself  and  properly  numbered. 

66.  Ginning  cotton  from  select  plants.  —  Small  gins, 
suitable  for  ginning  very  small  quantities  of  cotton  can 
now  be  secured.  Often  an  arrangement  can  be  made, 
whereby  a  single  gin  can  be  disconnected  from  the  stand 
of  gins  and  used  for  this  purpose.  In  any  event  every 
precaution  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  product  of  each 
plant  is  kept  together. 


60          FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

67.  Testing  transmitting  power  of  plants.  —  A  good 
plant  must  possess  the  important  property  of  transmitting 
its  desirable  qualities  to  its  progeny.    To  determine  what 
plants  .possess  this  property  requires  a  field  test.     The 
seeds  from  each  select  plant  should  be  grown  in  a  row  to 
themselves  by  the  method  known  as  the  "  plant-to-row " 
method.    For  this  test  select  a  uniform  plot  of  soil  that  is 
representative  of  the  soil  upon  which  the  general  crop  is 
to  be  grown. 

The  above  plot  should  be  isolated,  if  possible,  600  to 
800  feet  from  any  other  cotton  field.  The  object  of  this 
isolation  is  to  prevent  the  crossing  of  inferior  cottons 
with  the  selections.  It  is  especially  important  that  this 
test  plot  be  a  reasonable  distance  from  cotton  of  a  differ- 
ent variety.  Sometimes  the  test  plot  is  located  in  one 
corner  of  a  field  planted  with  seed  of  the  same  variety 
from  which  the  selections  were  made.  This  should  be 
done  only  when  isolation  is  impossible. 

The  plot  should  be  well  prepared  and  fertilized  if  neces- 
sary. As  each  selection  is  planted  in  a  row  to  itself,  a 
stake  bearing  the  same  number  as  the  plant  from  which 
the  seed  was  taken  should  be  driven  at  the  end.  The 
rows  should  be  of  equal  length  and  should,  as  nearly  as 
possible,  contain  the  same  number  of  plants.  A  method 
highly  recommended  is  to  plant  the  seed  in  hills  about 
20  inches  apart,  about  a  half  dozen  seeds  being  dropped 
in  a  hill.  Later  the  plants  are  thinned  to  one  plant  in  a 
hill.  The  same  cultivation  and  care  should  be  given  this 
test  plot  as  is  given  the  general  crop. 

68.  Selecting  the  best  progenies.  —  Just  before  the 
first  picking  the  test  plot  should  be  carefully  gone  over 
and  a  detailed  study  made  of  the  different  progenies. 
The  most  important  problem  now  is  to  determine  which 


COTTON  BREEDING  61 

of  the  original  plants  have,  to  the  greatest  degree,  trans- 
mitted their  good  qualities,  such  as  yield,  uniformity, 
length  and  strength  of  lint,  to  their  progeny.  The  progeny 
row  or  rows  that  are  found  to  be  superior  as  regards  the  ' 
good  points  for  which  the  plants  were  selected  should  be 
marked  for  second  generation  selections. 

69.  Making  the  second  generation  selections.  —  Hav- 
ing determined  which  are  the  best  progenies  in  the  test- 
plot,  the  breeder  should  immediately  examine  in  detail 
each  plant  in  the  superior  progenies,  marking  those  which 
are  nearest  ideal.    These  good  plants  should  be  numbered 
as  selected.     The  following  method  of  numbering  these 
second  generation  selections  is  recommended  by  H.  J. 
Webber.1    "If  one  of  the  best  progenies  is  from  the  orig- 
inal selection  No.  2,  label  the  selection  in  this  row  2-1, 
2-2,  2-3,  2-4,  2-5,  and  so  on,  the  second  number  after 
the  dash  being  the  number  of  the  individual  selected 
in  this  generation,  while  the  first  number,  2,  is  the  number 
of  the  original  selection.    In  the  same  way,  if  progeny  51 
is  one  of  the  best,  the  selections  made  from  this  would  be 
numbered  51-1,  51-2,  51-3,  and  so  on.    When  the  third- 
generation  selections  are  made,  they  should  be  numbered 
in  the  same  way,  separating  the  generation  by  a  dash.    For 
example,  the  selections  made  from  progeny  of  51-1  would 
be  labeled  51-1-1,  51-1-2,  51-1-3."    When  the  second- 
generation  selections  are  made  and  numbered,  each  selec- 
tion should  be  picked  separately  into  a  paper  bag  which 
bears  the  same  number  as  the  plant.     These  selections 
are  to  be  used  for  planting  the  breeding  plot  the  third  year. 

70.  The    multiplication   plot.  —  Seed   from   the   best 
plants  left  in  the  test-plot  after  the  second-generation 
selections  have  been  made  should  be  used  for  planting 

1  Bailey's  "  Cyclo.  of  Amer.  Agr.,  Vol.  2,"  page  256. 


62          FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

a  field  sufficiently  large  to  furnish  select  seed  for  the  gen- 
eral crop.  This  is  known  as  the  multiplication  plot.  This 
multiplication  plot  should  be  planted  each  year  from  the 
second-choice  seed  of  the  preceding  test-plot,  the  first- 
choice  seed  being  used  each  time,  of  course,  to  plant  the 
test-plot  of  the  next  year. 

71.  Influence  of  environment.  —  It  must  be  remem- 
bered that  such  environmental  factors  as  soil  and  seasonal 
conditions  will  greatly  modify  the  character  of  a  cotton 
plant.  For  this  reason  it  is  especially  important  that  the 
breeding  work  be  conducted  under  as  nearly  as  possible 
the  same  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  as  prevail  where 
the  general  crop  is  to  be  grown.  It  has  long  been  known 
that  river  bottom  soils  produce  somewhat  longer  jointed 
plants  than  do  upland  soils  of  a  droughty  character.  Also 
transferring  cotton  from  the  northern  part  of  the  cotton- 
belt  where  the  growing  season  is  short  to  more  southern 
sections  will,  to  an  extent,  produce  the  same  effect.  Cot- 
ton that  has  been  highly  improved  under  the  conditions 
existing  in  one  locality,  may  show  very  little  of  the 
improvement  when  grown  under  conditions  decidedly 
different. 

THE   USE    OF   HYBRIDIZATION   IN   COTTON   BREEDING 

Much  difference  of  opinion  exists  among  experts  as 
to  the  value  of  hybridization  in  the  improvement  of  cot- 
ton. However,  there  is  little  doubt  that  this  field  offers 
great  possibilities  to  the  trained  breeder  of  plants.  Re- 
sults of  value  can  be  obtained  only  when  this  phase  of 
cotton  improvement  is  made  the  subject  of  extended 
study  and  where  good  judgment  is  used  in  the  selection 
of  the  individuals,  varieties,  or  species  that  are  to  be 
crossed. 


COTTON  BREEDING  63 

72.  Reasons  for  hybridizing  cotton.  —  One  of  the  im- 
portant objects  in  crossing  different  varieties  or  species 
of  cotton  is  to  increase  the  variation  in  different  directions 
and  thereby  afford  opportunity  for  greater  selection  than 
would  otherwise  be  possible.     Also  it  is  often  possible 
to  unite  in  the  hybrid  desirable  characters  that  are  exhib- 
ited by  different  individuals,  varieties,  or  species. 

73.  The  nature  of  hybrids.  —  When  plants  of  different 
varieties  of  cotton  are  crossed,  the  hybrid  usually  comes 
nearly  intermediate  between  the  two  parents  in  the  first 
generation.  While  it  is  true  that  these  first-generation 
hybrids  are  nearly  uniform  in  the  characters  presented, 
they  are  nevertheless  very  unstable  individuals  as  is  evi- 
denced by  the  general  breaking  up  of  the  characters  in  the 
second  generation,  with  the  production  of  a  large  number 
of  variations.    It  is  in  this  second  generation  that  the  de- 
sirable variations  are  looked  for. 

It  has  been  found  that  the  first  generation  of  hybrids^ 
in  cotton  are  almost  always  more  vigorous  than  either 
parent.  Especially  is  this  true  following  the  crossing  of 
different  species  of  cotton  such  as  the  upland  and  Sea 
Island.  In  succeeding  years  this  increased  vigor  is  grad- 
ually lost  as  the  hybrid  becomes  fixed  in  type,  on  account 
of  selection. 

74.  Fixation  of  cotton  hybrids.  —  As  above  stated, 
it  is  in  the  second  generation  of  hybrids  that  all  manner 
of  types  are  formed,  the  separate  individuals  exhibiting 
the  characters  of  the  two  parents  in  very  different  degrees. 
The  breeder  should  carefully  examine  the  individuals  of 
this  generation  and  select  those  which  show,  as  nearly 
as  possible,  the  combination  of  characters  which  it  is  de- 
sired to  produce.    These  hybrids  should  be  self-fertilized 
the  next  year  or,  in  other  words,  each  plant  should  be  pro- 


64          FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

tected  by  means  of  a  very  fine-meshed  wire  cage  to  prevent 
insects  from  bringing  in  foreign  pollen.  The  succeeding 
year  the  seed  from  each  individual  should  be  planted  in 
an  isolated  patch  in  order  that  it  will  be  fertilized'  only 
with  pollen  of  related  progeny.  In  the  following  genera- 
tions select  only  those  plants  which  come  the  nearest  to 
the  original  type  and  grow  them  in  isolated  patches. 
Usually  from  four  to  six  years  are  required  to  breed  the 
hybrids  to  a  practical  state  of  fixity. 

75.  Method  of  crossing  cotton.  —  In  crossing  cotton 
it  is  necessary  that  the  parent  plants  be  selected  by  the 
afternoon  preceding  the  day  on  which  the  transfer  of  pol- 
len is  to  be  made.  Late  in  the  afternoon  several  large 
flower-buds  on  each  plant  should  be  selected  that  would 
open  the  next  morning.  The  anthers  are  at  once  removed 
from  the  buds  on  the  plants  that  are  to  be  used  as  female 
parents.  This  is' best  done  with  a  small  pair  of  scissors, 
pincers,  or  the  blade  of  a  pocket  knife  (Fig.  15).  First  care- 
fully cut  away  the  greater  part  of  every  petal,  thus  expos- 
ing the  anthers  which  should  be  removed  without  bruising 
the  pistil,  or  female  organ  of  the  flower.  When  the  anthers 
have  been  removed,  carefully  pin  a  small  paper  bag  over 
the  remaining  part  of  the  bud  to  prevent  insects  from 
bringing  in  foreign  pollen. 

It  is  also  necessary  that  the  selected  flower-buds  on  the 
male  parent  plants  be  covered  with  paper  bags.  This 
prevents  the  introduction  by  insects  of  pollen  from  other 
plants  to  the  flower  before  the  cross  is  made.  If  the  buds 
have  been  properly  selected  with  reference  to  stage  of 
development,  all  will  reach  the  suitable  stage  for  crossing 
at  about  the  same  time  on  the  following  morning  — 
(usually  about  nine  o'clock).  This  readiness  can  easily 
be  detected  by  means  of  the  stickiness  of  the  stigmas  on 


COTTON  BREEDING 


65 


the  one  hand  and  by  whether  or  not  the  anthers  have 
begun  to  burst,  setting  free  the  pollen,  on  the  other.  When 
this  stage  is  reached  the  pollen  from  the  male  buds  should 
be  transferred  to  the  stigmas  of  the  female  buds.  This 
can  be  done  by  pulling  the  entire  flower  bearing  the  pollen 
and  rubbing  its  anthers  gently  over  the  stigmas  of  the 
emasculated  flower  until  it  is  observed  that  some  of  the 


FIG.   15.  —  Outfit  used  in  crossing  cotton;  also  buds  showing  the  steps 
in  emasculation  and  a  boll  three  days  after  pollination. 

pollen-grains  have  adhered  to  the  stigmas  and  sides  of 
the  pistil.  The  paper  bags  should  again  be  placed  over 
the  emasculated  flowers  and  allowed  to  remain  for  four 
or  five  days  until  the  small  boll  is  formed.  With  a  small 
tag  carefully  label  each  boll  so  that  it  may  be  distinguished 
from  others. 

76.  Hybridization  versus  selection.  —  For  quick  re- 
sults selection  offers  much  greater  possibilities  in  cotton 
improvement  than  hybridization.  Owing  to  the  large 


66          FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

amount  of  training  and  experience  necessary  to  produce 
desirable  results  from  hybridization,  the  advisability  of 
anyone  except  the  experienced  breeder  attempting  this 
method  is  very  doubtful.  The  mere  matter  of  successfully 
crossing  two  varieties  means  little.  The  progeny  of  this 
cross  must  be  carefully  studied  and  selected  for  a  number 
of  years  in  most  cases  before  anything  of  real  value  is 
obtained. 

77.  Acclimatization.  —  The  method  of  improving  cot- 
ton by  means  of  acclimatization  is  probably  the  least  hope- 
ful, especially  when  the  introductions  are  brought  direct 
from  remote  regions  with  widely  different  climatic  and 
other  conditions.  For  this  reason  this  method  should  be 
employed  only  after  a  careful  study  of  the  environment 
of  the  original  and  the  proposed  new  country  or  locality 
of  production.  However,  results  of  considerable  value 
have  been  obtained  at  least  partially  by  means  of  this 
method.  A  noteworthy  example  is  the  successful  produc- 
tion of  several  varieties  of  Egyptian  cotton  in  certain 
sections  of  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  and  California. 


CHAPTER  VII 
COTTON  SOILS  AND  CLIMA  TIC  AD  APT  A  TIONS 

WITH  good  management,  nearly  all  types  of  soil  within 
the  cotton-belt  can  be  made  to  produce  profitable  crops 
of  cotton.  However,  this  crop  is  not  grown  with  equal 
success  on  all  types  of  soil.  The  sandy  uplands,  as  a  rule, 
produce  small  yields.  The  heavy  clays  often  produce  a 
large  vegetative  growth  accompanied  by  a  small  amount 
of  lint.  The  same  thing  is  often  true  of  bottom-land  soils. 
The  safest  cotton  soils  are  the  medium  grades  of  loam. 

The  successful  production  of  cotton  in  the  United  States 
is  lirnited  by  climatic  conditions  to  the  region  south  of 
latitude  37  degrees.     Attempts  to  grow  cotton  north  of 
this  boundary  have,  as  a  rule,  failed. 
• 

COTTON  SOILS 

78.  Soil  types.  —  An  attempt  to  classify  the  various 
types  of  soil  in  the  cotton-belt  upon  which  cotton  is  being 
successfully  produced  reveals  a  large  number  of  soil  types. 
No  attempt  is  made  to  give  a  complete  classification  of 
these  soils.  The  outline  given  on  next  page  includes  only 
the  more  important  types  as  regards  their  extent  and  use 
in  cotton  production.  This  outline  is  based  upon  the  work 
of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Soils.  The  types  are 
grouped  in  accordance  with  the  soil  provinces  or  regions  in 
which  they  occur. 

67 


68 


FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


THE  PRINCIPAL  COTTON  SOIL  TYPES 


Provinces  and  Regions 


Coastal  Plain  Province. 


Types 

Norfolk  sand  and  fine  sand. 
Norfolk  sandy  loam,  and  fine 

sandy  loam. 
Tifton  sandy  loam. 
Orangeburg  sand  and  fine  sand. 
Orangeburg    sandy    loam    and 

fine  sandy  loam. 
Greenville    clay    loam,    sandy 

loam,    gravelly    sandy    loam 

and  loamy  sand. 
Ruston  fine  sandy  loam. 
Susquehanna  fine  sandy  loam. 
Houston  black  clay,  loam,  and 

clay  loam. 
Houston  clay. 
Victoria  clay,  loam,  and  sandy 

loam. 
Durant  fine  sandy  loam. 


Piedmont  Plateau. 


Cecil  clay. 
Cecil  clay  loam. 
Cecil  sandy  loam. 
Louisa  slate  loam,  fine  sandy 
loam,  and  loam. 


Appalachian  Province. 


f  DeKalb  fine  sandy  loam. 

|  DeKalb  silt  loam. 

[  Fayetteville  fine  sandy  loam. 


[  Clarksville  gravelly  loam, 

Clarksville  silt  loam. 
Limestone  Valleys  and  Uplands. .  j  Decatur  ^  ^ 

[  Hagerstown  loam. 


Loessial  Region Memphis  silt  loam. 


COTTON  SOILS  AND  CLIMATIC  ADAPTATIONS    69 


River  Flood  Plains  Province. . 


Great  Plains  Region 


Miller    fine    sandy    loam    and 

clay  loam. 
Trinity  clay. 
Sharkey  clay. 
Ocklocknee  fine  sandy  loam  and 

loam. 

Congaree  loam. 
Kalmia  fine  sandy  loam. 
Cahaba  fine  sandy  loam. 

Vernon  fine  sandy  loam,  loam, 

and  silt  loam. 
Crawford  stony  clay. 
Amarillo   loam   and   silty   clay 

loam. 


79.  Cotton  soils  of  the  Coastal  Plain  Province.  —  In 

the  cotton-belt  the  coastal  plain  province  comprises  a 
large  area  of  rather  flat  or  gently  rolling  soil  bordering 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  from  Virginia 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande.  The  soils  of  this  region 
are  predominantly  sandy  or  loamy  with  limited  areas  of 
very  productive  clay.  The  more  important  types  are 
briefly  discussed  below. 

The  Norfolk  soils.  —  These  soils  extending  from  Vir- 
ginia to  Texas  are  extensively  used  for  cotton  production. 
They  are,  in  the  main,  well-drained.  In  fact,  the  coarser 
textured  soils  of  this  series  such  as  the  sand  and  fine  sand 
are  excessively  drained  owing  to  their  loose,  incoherent 
nature,  and  the  general  lack  of  organic  matter.  The 
sandy  loam  and  fine  sandy  loam  of  this  series  are  better 
suited  to  the  production  of  cotton  than  are  the  sands, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  these  loams  are  somewhat  richer 
in  plant-food.  They  are  also  underlain  at  a  depth  of 
12  to  20  inches  with  a  sandy  clay  subsoil,  which  renders 
them  less  droughty  than  the  sands. 


70  FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

The  yields  of  cotton  are  low  on  the  Norfolk  soils,  rang- 
ing from  one-fourth  to  one-half  bale  to  the  acre.  The 
most  urgent  need  of  these  soils  is  organic  matter.  In 
addition,  phosphatic  and  potassic  fertilizers  are  often  nec- 
essary for  best  results. 

Tifton  sandy  loam.  —  This  type  represents  a  rather 
important  cotton  soil  located  in  southern  Georgia  and 
probably  in  the  panhandle  of  Florida  and  in  southern 
Alabama.  It  is  described  as  a  "gray  or  yellowish-gray 
medium  sandy  loam  about  10  inches  in  depth."  Drainage 
is  usually  good  and  the  yields  of  cotton  are  considerably 
higher  than  on  the  associated  Norfolk  soils. 

The  Orangeburg  soils.  —  In  this  series  the  surface  soils 
are  gray  or  brownish  in  color.  They  are  underlain 
by  a  characteristic  red  sandy  clay  or  stiff  clay  subsoil 
which  distinguishes  them  from  the  Norfolk  soils.  The 
Orangeburg  sandy  loam  and  fine  sandy  loam  are  exten- 
sively and  successfully  used  for  cotton,  especially  in  cen- 
tral South  Carolina,  the  upper  coastal  plain  of  Georgia 
and  through  the  coastal  plain  of  Alabama  and  Mississippi. 
They  also  occur  in  east  and  northeast  Texas.  The  Orange- 
burg sand  and  fine  sand  are  fairly  important  cotton  soils  in 
these  sections,  being  more  productive  than  the  correspond- 
ing types  of  the  Norfolk  series,  but  not  so  extensive. 

As  a  rule  the  surface  soils  in  this  series  are  not  retentive 
of  water,  but  the  clay  subsoils,  in  a  measure,  counteract 
this  defect.  The  most  urgent  needs  of  these  soils  are: 
(1)  organic  matter,  (2)  deeper  plowing,  and  (3)  the  preven- 
tion of  erosion. 

The  Greenville  series.  —  The  soils  of  this  series  are  gen- 
erally loamy,  of  reddish-brown  to  dark-red  color,  and  are 
underlain  by  a  "red  friable  sandy  clay  subsoil."  They 
are  admirably  adapted  to  cotton,  being  more  retentive  of 


COTTON  SOILS  AND  CLIMATIC  ADAPTATIONS    71 

moisture  than  the  Orangeburg  and  Norfolk  soils.  With 
proper  mangement,  yields  of  from  three-fourths  to  one- 
and-a-half  bales  to  the  acre  are  easily  obtained,  especially 
on  the  sandy  loam  and  clay  loam  types. 

The  Greenville  soils  occur  in  southwest  Georgia  and 
in  the  coastal  plain  region  of  Alabama.  There  are  also 
some  /airly  important  areas  in  portions  of  Louisiana  and 
northeastern  Texas. 

Ruston  fine  sandy  loam.  —  This  is  a  rather  extensive 
cotton  soil,  being  rather  abundant  in  the  coastal  plain 
region  of  Mississippi  and  Alabama.  It  is  a  "light  gray 
or  yellowish-gray  fine  sandy  loam  of  variable  depth,  but 
averaging  about  20  inches."  The  subsoil  is  a  sandy  clay 
intermediate  in  color  between  that  of  the  Norfolk  and 
Orangeburg  soils.  This  soil  is  inclined  to  be  droughty 
and  cotton  yields  diminish  unless  extreme  care  is  exercised 
to  prevent  the  waste  of  soil  moisture. 

Susquehanna  fine  sandy  loam.  —  This  type  comprises 
an  immense  area  in  east  Texas,  Louisiana,  Mississippi, 
and  Alabama.  The  soil  is  a  "gray  to  brown  fine  sand  or 
light  fine  sandy  loam  about  12  inches  deep,  resting  upon  a 
red  or  yellowish-red  clay  which  is  usually  stiff  and  plastic." 
Cotton  gives  only  moderate  yields  on  this  type.  The 
prevention  of  erosion  and  addition  of  organic  matter  are 
the  most  urgent  needs  of  this  soil. 

The  Houston  soils.  —  This  series  comprises  very  valuable 
cotton  soils  embracing  rather  large  areas  in  Texas,  Ala- 
bama, and  Mississippi.  The  Houston  black  clay  consti- 
tutes what  is  known  as  the  "black  waxy  belt"  of  north  and 
central  Texas.  It  is  found  to  a  limited  extent  in  central 
Alabama  and  northeastern  Mississippi.  This  type  of  soil 
produces  more  bales  of  cotton  than  any  other  single  type  in 
the  United  States.  The  average  yield  is  about  one-half 


72  FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

bale  to  the  acre.  When  in  a  condition  of  moderate  mois- 
ture and  well  tilled,  the  soil  is  friable,  but  it  becomes  ex- 
ceedingly waxy  and  sticky  when  wet.  This  is  more  or  less 
characteristic  of  all  the  Houston  soils.  The  subsoil  is  a 
tight  clay  of  variegated  color.  The  most  urgent  need  of 
the  Houston  soils  is  crop  rotation.  It  is  probably  true 
that  on  no  other  group  of  soils  in  the  South  have  cropping 
systems  been  so  universally  abused. 

Victoria  soils.  —  The  soils  of  this  series  are  closely  re- 
lated to  the  Houston  soils.  They  "  consist  of  brown  to 
black  soils  with  gray  to  whitish,  calcareous  subsoils  derived 
from  Pleistocene  deposits  of  the  Gulf  Coastal  Plains." 
The  Victoria  loam  and  clay  produce  excellent  yields  of 
cotton  when  properly  tilled.  These  soils  are  rather  exten- 
sive in  south  Texas. 

Durant  fine  sandy  loam.  —  This  is  an  important  cotton 
soil  in  north  central  Texas  and  southern  Oklahoma.  It 
is  14  to  18  inches  deep  and  of  chocolate  brown  color. 
Cotton  gives  only  fair  yields  as  ordinarily  managed,  but 
the  soil  responds  well  to  good  treatment. 

80.  Cotton  soils  of  the  Piedmont  Plateau.  —  That 
part  of  the  Piedmont  Plateau  lying  within  the  cotton- 
belt  comprises  central  North  Carolina,  western  South 
Carolina,  northern  Georgia,  and  a  portion  of  east  central 
Alabama.  The  topography  is  rolling  to  hilly.  The  soils 
of  this  region  are  residual,  being  formed  in  place  by  the 
decay  of  the  underlying  rocks.  The  more  important 
cotton  soils  of  this  region  are  briefly  described  below: 

The  Cecil  soils.  —  The  most  extensively  used  cotton 
soil  in  this  series  is  the  Cecil  sandy  loam.  It  is  a  rather 
light  soil  but  is  underlain  by  a  red  clay  subsoil. 

The  Cecil  clay  and  clay  loam,  which  are  closely  related, 
are  also  rather  extensively  used  for  cotton.  The  clay  is 


COTTON  SOILS  AND  CLIMATIC  ADAPTATIONS    73 

composed  of  a  reddish  clay  loam  to  a  depth  of  2  to  6  inches, 
underlain  by  a  heavy  red  clay  subsoil.  The  clay  loam  is 
reddish-brown  to  a  depth  of  6  to  12  inches,  underlain  by 
a  red  clay  loam  and  clay  subsoil. 

The  Cecil  soils  require  liberal  applications  of  vegetable 
matter  and  to  a  less  extent  lime,  in  order  to  be  made  pro- 
ductive. 

The  Louisa  series.  —  The  soils  of  this  series  consist  of 
light  brown  or  pale  yellow  friable  loams,  ranging  in  depth 
from  5  to  8  inches.  The  subsoils  are  pale  yellow  loams, 
often  grading  into  a  red  clay.  The  yields  of  cotton  are 
usually  low.  In  dry  years  crops  suffer  from  lack  of  mois- 
ture. It  is  often  difficult  to  maintain  these  soils  in  good 
structural  condition,  owing  to  their  inclination  to  run 
together  or  bake. 

81.  Cotton  soils  of  the  Appalachian  Province.  —  This 
province  is  not  extensive  in  the  cotton-belt.  It  comprises 
part  of  Tennessee,  northwest  Georgia,  northern  Alabama, 
and  the  Ozark  region  of  Arkansas.  Soils  of  the  DeKalb 
series  and  the  Fayetteville  fine  sandy  loam  are  the  im- 
portant cotton  soils  of  this  region. 

The  DeKalb  soils.  —  The  two  important  cotton  soils 
of  this  series  are  the  DeKalb  fine  sandy  loam  and  silt  loam. 
The  former  is  a  fine,  compact  sandy  loam  ranging  in  depth 
from  8  to  12  inches  and  underlain  by  a  very  loose  loamy 
subsoil.  The  latter  soil  is  not  so  compact  and  the  subsoil 
is  a  friable  silt-clay  loam.  Commercial  fertilizers  are 
necessary  on  both  types  in  order  to  secure  good  yields  of 
cotton.  These  soils  occur  in  that  portion  of  the  province 
found  in  Tennessee,  Georgia,  and  Alabama. 

The  Fayetteville  fine  sandy  loam.  —  This  is  the  important 
cotton  soil  of  the  Ozark  region  of  Arkansas.  It  is  8  to  12 
inches  deep,  of  a  reddish-gray  color,  and  underlain  by  a 


74          FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

•sandy  clay  subsoil  of  similar  color.    Drainage  is  generally 
good  and  fair  yields  of  cotton  are  secured. 

82.  Cotton  soils  of  the  limestone  valleys  and  uplands.— 
In.  so  far  as  the  cotton-belt  is  concerned  this  region  is  con- 
fined to  northwestern  Georgia,  northern  Alabama,  and 
Tennessee.    The  Clarksville  silt  loam  and  gravelly  loam 
are  the  principal  upland  cotton  soils,  while  the  Decatur 
clay  loam  and  Hagerstown  loam  are  the  chief  valley  soils 
for  cotton.     These  soils  have  been  derived  very  largely 
from  the  decay  of  underlying  limestones  and  dolomitic 
limestones. 

The  Clarksville  soils.  —  The  only  important  cotton  soils 
of  this  series  are  the  Clarksville  gravelly  loam  and  silt 
loam.  These  soils  give  fair  yields  of  cotton  when  properly 
managed.  The  gravelly  loam  is  probably  the  better  for 
this  crop.  The  silt  loam  is  more  droughty  and  is  looked 
upon-  as  a  rather  weak  soil.  The  more  level  areas  are 
poorly  drained. 

The  Decatur  clay  loam  is  a  more  productive  soil  than 
either  of  the  Clarksville  types  described.  The  surface 
soil  is  8  to  12  inches  deep  and  ranges  in  color  from  a  brown 
to  reddish  brown.  The  subsoil  is  a  reddish  brown  to  red 
clay.  With  good  management,  profitable  crops  of  cotton 
are  easily  produced  on  this  soil. 

The  Hagerstown  loam,  occurring  in  both  Alabama  and 
Tennessee  is  one  of  the  best  cotton  soils  of  this  region. 
"The  soil  is  a  brown  yellow  loam  averaging  about  12 
inches  in  depth.  The  subsoil  is  a  yellow  or  reddish  clay 
loam  to  a  depth  of  24  inches." 

83.  Cotton  soils  of  the  Loessial  region.  —  The  Loessial 
region  comprises  an  important  area  of  silty  deposits  formed 
by  water  or  wind  during  or  following  the  glacial  period.    In 
the  cotton-belt  it  occupies  a  rather  broad  belt  extending 


COTTON  SOILS  AND  CLIMATIC  ADAPTATIONS    75 

from  southwestern  Tennessee  across  the  entire  western 
border  of  Mississippi  into  Louisiana. 

The  Memphis  silt  loam  is  the  principal  cotton  soil  of  the 
Loessial  region.  The  top  soil  is  about  8  inches  deep  and 
powdery  when  dry.  The  subsoil  is  a  "yellowish-brown 
or  reddish-yellow  compact  heavy  silt  loam  or  silty  clay 
loam."  As  this  soil  occupies  uplands,  it  is  subject  to 
serious  erosion.  It  produces  good  yields  of  cotton. 

84.  Cotton  soils  of  the  River  Flood  Plains  Province.  - 
The  soils  of  this  province  occupy  the  present  flood  plains 
or  " first  bottoms"  and  also  the  old  flood  plains  or  " second 
bottoms"  of  streams  of  that  portion  of  the  United  States 
lying  east  of  the  Great  Plains  Region.  These  soils  are 
composed  of  alluvial  deposits  washed  from  the  uplands 
and  deposited  by  overflow  waters.  In  general,  the  soils 
of  this  province  are  very  fertile  where  properly  drained. 
The  most  important  cotton  soils  of  this  group  are  briefly 
described  below. 

The  Miller  fine  sandy  loam  and  clay  are  important  cotton 
soils  found  in  the  valleys  of  those  rivers  which  rise  in  the 
Permian  Red  Beds  such  as  the  Brazos,  Arkansas,  and  Red 
Rivers.  They  represent  the  wash  from  these  Red  Beds. 
The  fine  sandy  loam  is  grayish  brown  or  reddish  in  color 
and  is  12  to  24  inches  deep.  It  is  well  drained  and  is  an 
excellent  cotton  soil.  The  miller  clay  to  a  depth  of  10 
inches  is  brownish  red  or  chocolate  colored.  The  subsoil 
is  very  stiff  and  tenacious.  This  soil  represents  the  finest 
materials  brought  down  from  the  Permian  Red  Beds  and 
constitutes  a  strong  cotton  soil. 

The  Trinity  clay  is  a  productive  cotton  soil  occupying 
rather  level  bottoms  along  the  streams  "in  and  issuing 
from  the  calcareous  prairies  of  the  Gulf  Coastal  Plain." 
This  soil  is  easily  puddled  if  worked  while  wet.  Good 


76          FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

drainage  is  an  essential  to  the  profitable  production  of 
cotton  on  this  soil. 

The  Sharkey  clay  found  in  certain  river  bottoms  of  Texas, 
Louisiana,  Mississippi,  and  Missouri,  and  locally  known 
as  "buck  shot  land"  is  a  valuable  cotton  soil  when  well 
drained.  It  is  very  stiff  and  waxy.  Drainage  and  organic 
matter  are  its  most  urgent  needs.  Other  important  cotton 
soils  belonging  to  this  province  are  the  Ocklocknee  fine 
sandy  loam,  occupying  level  or  gently  sloping  bottoms 
in  Alabama  and  Mississippi,  the  Congaree  loam,  occupying 
the  bottoms  of  streams  flowing  through  or  rising  in  the 
Piedmont  Plateau,  and  the  Kalmia  and  Cahaba  fine  sandy 
loams  found  on  second  bottoms  along  streams  of  the 
Coastal  Plain. 

85.  Cotton  soils  of  the  Great  Plains  region.  —  In  so 
far  as  the  cotton-belt  is  concerned  this  region  comprises 
western  Oklahoma  and  western  Texas.  The  greater 
portion  of  the  soils  occupying  this  area  are  residual. 
Climatic  conditions  often  prohibit  the  successful  produc- 
tion of  cotton  throughout  a  large  part  of  this  region. 

The  principal  cotton  soils  of  the  Great  Plains  Region 
are  the  Vernon  soils,  comprising  the  fine  sandy  loam,  loam, 
and  silt  loam,  occupying  the  Red  Beds  region  lying  to  the 
east  of  the  Staked  plains;  also  the  Crawford  stony  clay, 
lying  to  the  east  and  south  of  the  Vernon  soils,  and  the 
Amarillo  loam  and  silty  clay  loam  of  the  staked  plains 
region.  These  soils  are  quite  productive  when  the  moisture 
supply  is  abundant. 

CLIMATIC   ADAPTATIONS 

While  cotton  is  a  rather  sensitive  plant,  it  is  affected 
less  by  ordinary  changes  in  the  weather  than  other  field 
crops.  Owing  to  its  long  growing  season,  it  readily  recovers 


COTTON  SOILS  AND  CLIMATIC  ADAPTATIONS    77 

from  minor  setbacks.  Nevertheless,  such  important  cli- 
matic factors  as  the  length  of  the  growing  season,  tem- 
perature, sunshine,  and  the  amount  and  distribution  of 
the  rainfall  are  directly  related  to  the  normal  growth  and 
fruiting  of  cotton. 

86.  Length  of  growing  season.  —  The  time  required 
for  the  full  development  of  cotton  is  190  to  200  days  from 
planting  to  harvest.     In  fact,  the  maximum  yields  are 
produced  in  sections  where  the  growing  season  exceeds 
200  days.    By  examining  Fig.  16,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the 
length  of  the  growing  season  in  different  portions  of  the 
cotton-belt  varies  from  190  to  200  days  in  the  northern- 
most part  to  300  days  in  the  extreme  southern  limit.    The 
present  tendency  is  to  develop  early  maturing  cottons  to 
avoid  the  injury  from  the  boll-weevil. 

87.  Amount  and  distribution  of  the  rainfall.  —  pre- 
cipitation is  a  very  prominent  factor  in  the  development 
of  the  cotton  plant.     During  April,  at  which  time  the 
greater  portion  of  the  cotton  crop  is  planted,  light  but 
frequent  showers  are  desired.    The  presence  of  excessive 
moisture  in  the  soil  at  this  time  causes  the  seed  to  decay 
rather  than  germinate.    On  the  other  hand,  an  abundance 
of  capillary  water  must  be  present  or  the  seedlings  will 
not  secure  the  proper  nourishment,  the  soil  will  bake, 
and  a  poor  stand  will  result. 

If  the  seed-bed  for  cotton  has  been  properly  prepared, 
thus  insuring  the  presence  of  a  rather  large  amount  of 
available  water  in  the  soil  at  planting  time,  light  but  well 
distributed  showers  during  the  months  of  April,  May,  and 
June  give  best  result.  This  permits  the  roots  to  sink  deep 
into  the  soil,  enabling  the  plants  to  better  withstand  the 
dry  periods  of  late  summer.  A  wet  spring  causes  the  rapid 
development  of  surface  roots  to  the  sacrifice  of  the  deeper 


78          FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


COTTON  SOILS  AND  CLIMATIC  ADAPTATIONS    79 

roots.  This  abnormal  development  causes  the  plants 
to  wilt  rapidly  and  shed  their  foliage  and  fruit  during 
the  droughty  conditions  which  so  often  prevail  in  late 
summer. 

Experience  has  shown  that  if  April,  May,  and  June 
have  been  favorable,  cotton  can  withstand  considerable 
rain  during  the  period  from  the  middle  of  July  to  the 
middle  of  August.  Excessive  rain  during  the  latter  period 
of  growth  and  maturity  induces  a  rank  growth  of  weed 
to  the  detriment  of  the  fruit. 

88.  Temperature  and  sunshine.  —  In  considering  the 
influence  of  temperature  and  sunshine  upon  the  develop- 
ment of  cotton  one  must  divide  the  life -history  of  the 
plant  into  two  periods.  The  first  is  that  in  which  the 
plant  is  in  full  vegetative  growth,  extending  from 
planting  time  until  about  the  first  or  middle  of  Au- 
gust. The  second  period  is  that  in  which  the  vegeta- 
tive growth  is  checked,  the  plant  diverting  its  energies 
to  the  production  of  fruit  from  the  previously  stored 
material. 

During  the  first  period  the  mean  daily  temperatures 
increase  rapidly.  Throughout  the  greater  part  of  this 
period  cotton  requires  a  very  warm  or  even  hot  atmos- 
phere, provided  there  is  sufficient  humidity  in  the  atmos- 
phere to  prevent  excessive  transpiration.  It  is  also  de- 
sirable that  the  daily  range  in  temperature  should  be 
uniform  during  this  first  period;  otherwise  the  vegetative 
growth  is  likely  to  be  checked. 

In  the  second  period  the  temperature  decreases  rapidly 
and  there  is  usually  a  greater  range  of  temperature  be- 
tween day  and  night.  This  is  very  favorable  to  the 
maturing  crop  as  it  serves  to  check  the  vegetative  growth 
and  induce  fruiting.  It  is  highly  important  that  the 


80          FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

plants  receive  an  abundance  of  sunshine  during  June  and 
a  part  of  July.  As  a  rule  the  first  blooms  begin  to  appear 
early  in  June,  and  the  plants  bloom  rapidly  until  the 
middle  of  July.  It  is  at  this  stage  that  very  little  rain  and 
plenty  of  sunshine  are  required. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

FERTILIZERS,  MANURES  AND  ROTATIONS  FOR 
COTTON 

THE  problem  of  maintaining  permanently  the  produc- 
ing power  of  the  soils  in  the  cotton-belt  involves,  (1)  such 
a  system  of  cropping  as  will  provide  these  soils  with  an 
abundance  of  organic  matter  and  nitrogen,  and  (2)  the 
application  of  the  two  important  plant-food  materials, 
—  phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  —  to  those  soils  in  which 
these  constituents  are  more  or  less  deficient.  In  general, 
the  cotton  farmer  has  neglected  the  first  of  these  practices 
and  has  greatly  abused  the  second.  In  fact,  he  has  learned 
to  rely,  almost  entirely,  upon  commercial  fertilizers  to 
supply  the  nitrogen  as  well  as  the  mineral  foods  where  these 
constituents  are  deficient. 

The  fact  that  soils  have  rapidly  decreased  in  productive- 
ness following  the  continuous  production  of  cotton  has 
led  most  cotton  farmers  to  believe  that  cotton  is  a  very 
exhaustive  crop.  From  the  standpoint  of  the  amount  of 
plant-food  materials  taken  out  of  the  soil  this  is  not 
true. 

89.  Fertility  removed  by  cotton.  —  An  acre  of  cotton 
yielding  500  pounds  of  lint,  1000  pounds  of  seed  and  2000 
pounds  of  stalks  will  remove  from  the  soil  approximately 
the  following  amounts  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and 
potash: 

81 


82          FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 
TABLE  5.  SHOWING  PLANT-FOOD  REMOVED  BY  COTTON 


NITROGEN 

(POUNDS) 

PHOSPHORIC 
ACID 
(POUNDS) 

POTASH 
(POUNDS) 

Lint,  500  pounds  
Seed,  1000  pounds  
Stalks,  2000  pounds  

1.5 
31.5 
51.0 

0.5 
12.6 
20.0 

2.4 
11.5 
36.2 

Total  Crop  

84.0 

33.1 

50.1 

The  cotton  plant  requires  much  more  nitrogen  than 
either  phosphoric  acid  or  potash.  Of  the  total  nitrogen  re- 
quired, approximately  98  per  cent  is  in  the  stalks  and  seed 
and  only  2  per  cent  in  the  lint.  Approximately  99  per  cent 
of  the  phosphoric  acid  and  95  per  cent  of  the  potash  is  in 
the  stalks  and  seed.  When  it  is  remembered  that  in  ordi- 
nary farm  practice  the  stalks  are  returned  to  the  soil  and  in 
some  cases  the  seed  used  as  a  fertilizer,  or  its  equivalent  in 
cotton-seed  meal  purchased  and  returned  to  the  soil,  the 
fact  becomes  clear  that  the  cotton  crop  does  not  remove  ex- 
cessive amounts  of  plant-food  as  compared  with  other  field 
crops.  The  gradual  decline  in  the  organic  content  of  the  soil, 
the  leaching  and  erosion  during  the  winter  months,  and 
the  poor  physical  condition  of  the  soil,  all  of  which  result 
from  the  continuous  cultivation  of  cotton,  are  the  primary 
reasons  why  cotton  soils  become  poor. 

90.  Maintenance  of  fertility.  —  The  ideal  practice 
is  to  return  to  the  soil,  either  directly  or  in  farm  manure, 
all  plant-food  not  sold  from  the  farm.  However,  sound 
fertilizer  practice  does  not  mean  that  the  plant-food 
constituents  must  be  purchased  and  returned  to  the  soil 
in  the  proportions  in  which  they  are  removed  by  crops. 
Many  clay  soils  contain  large  quantities  of  potash.  Here 


FERTILIZERS,  ROTATIONS  FOR  COTTON         83 

the  problem  is  to  render  this  natural  supply  of  potash 
available  to  crops  by  good  soil  management,  rather  than 
to  depend  upon  potassic  fertilizers.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  are  extensive  areas  of  soils,  especially  those  of  an 
extremely  sandy  nature,  that  are  very  deficient  in  plant- 
food.  The  plant-food  materials  should  be  returned  to 
these  soils  in  amounts  exceeding  those  in  which  they  are 
removed  by  crops,  as  there  is  considerable  loss  of  these 
materials  as  a  result  of  leaching  and  erosion. 

COMMERCIAL  FERTILIZERS   FOR  COTTON 

91.  Nitrogen-supplying  fertilizers.  —  The  two  fertiliz- 
ing materials  supplying  the  greater  part  of  the  purchased 
nitrogen  for  cotton  soils  are  cotton-seed  meal  and  sodium 
nitrate.     Other  materials  of  secondary  importance  are 
ammonium  sulfate,  dried  blood,  tankage,  and  cotton  seed. 
An  important  factor  in  determining  which  of  the  above 
materials  the  cotton  grower  should  buy  is  the  relative 
cost  of  the  element  nitrogen.    In  fact,  the  farmer  should 
secure  the  greater  part  of  his  nitrogen  through  the  growth 
of  legumes  and  the  production  and  use  of  farm  manures. 

92.  Sodium  nitrate  versus  cotton-seed  meal.  —  Ex- 
periments and  farm  experience  have  shown  that  on  most 
soils,  when  the  materials  are  properly  applied,  a  pound  of 
nitrogen  will  give  equally  good  results  when  applied  to 
cotton  in  either  sodium  nitrate  or  cotton-seed  meal.    As 
the  form  in  which  the  nitrogen  is  contained  differs  in  these 
two  fertilizers,  correct  practices  as  regards  their  applica- 
tion differ  somewhat.    Sodium  nitrate  contains  its  nitro- 
gen in  the  form  of  a  soluble  inorganic  salt  and  for  this 
reason  it  is  a  quick  acting  fertilizer.    It  is  not  absorbed  by 
the  soil  in  large  quantities  and  is  easily  lost  in  the  drainage 
water.    The  nitrogen  in  cotton-seed  meal  is  combined  with 


84 


FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


other  elements  to  form  organic  material.  It  does  not 
become  available  to  the  plant  until  the  cotton-seed  meal 
has  undergone  decomposition,  which  results  in  the  trans- 
formation of  the  organic  nitrogen  into  nitrate  nitrogen. 
For  this  reason  cotton-seed  meal  acts  less  quickly  than 
sodium  nitrate.  It  is  not  so  easily  lost  in  the  drainage 
water  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  is  readily  absorbed  by  soils. 

For  the  reasons  just  stated,  sodium  nitrate  should  not 
be  applied  in  large  quantities  to  cotton  soils  before  or 
even  at  the  time  of  planting.  It  should  be  applied  in  mod- 
erate quantity  (50-100  pounds  to  the  acre)  while  the  crop 
is  growing  upon  the  soil.  Cotton-seed  meal  is  best  applied 
a  short  while  before  or  at  the  time  of  planting. 

93.  Cotton  seed  versus  cotton-seed  meal.  —  As  to 
whether  the  farmer  should  use  cotton  seed  or  cotton-seed 
meal  as  a  source  of  nitrogen  will  depend  primarily  upon 
the  market  prices  of  these  products.  With  prices  that  have 
prevailed  in  past  years  the  farmer  can  ill  afford  to  use  his 
seed  for  fertilizing  purposes  owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
market  value  of  the  seed  greatly  exceeds  its  fertilizing 
value. 

The  following  table  will  give  at  once  a  clear  idea  as  to  the 
relative  value  of  meal  and  seed  for  fertilizer: 

TABLE  6.  SHOWING  FERTILIZING  CONSTITUENTS  IN  COTTON  SEED 
AND  COTTON-SEED  MEAL 


• 

COTTON  SEED 

COTTON-SEED  MEAL 

PER  CENT 

(POUNDS 
TO  A  TON) 

PER  CENT 

(POUNDS 

TO  A  TON) 

Nitrogen  

3.1 
1.3 
1.2      * 

62 
26 

24 

7.0 
2.5 
1.5 

140 
50 
30 

Phosphoric  Acid  .  .  . 
Potash 

FERTILIZERS,  ROTATIONS  FOR  COTTON         85 

In  so  far  as  the  plant-food  constituents  determine  the 
fertilizing  value  of  these  two  materials,  cotton-seed  meal 
is  worth  a  little  more  than  twice  as  much  as  cotton  seed. 
Duggar  1  states  that  "the, average  of  a  number  of  exper- 
iments on  many  soils  in  Alabama  showed  that,  as  a  fer- 
tilizer for  cotton,  one  pound  of  high-grade  cotton-seed 
meal  was  equal  the  first  year  to  2TV  pounds  of  crushed 
cotton  seed.  Later  experiments  in  Alabama  and  Georgia 
make  a  still  more  favorable  showing  for  the  meal."  The 
nitrogen  in  cotton  seed  becomes  available  more  slowly 
than  that  in  cotton-seed  meal,  owing  to  the  high  oil  con- 
tent of  the  seed,  which  retards  decomposition.  For  this 
reason,  cotton  seed  usually  exerts  a  greater  influence  the 
second  year  after  its  application  than  does  the  meal. 

While  the  above  consideration  gives  the  preference  to 
cotton-seed  meal  as  a  fertilizer,  it  must  be  remembered 
that  it  costs  the  farmer  something  to  sell  his  seed  and  buy 
meal  or  to  exchange  his  seed  for  meal.  If,  as  we  have  seen, 
1000  pounds  of  cotton-seed  meal  is  of  equal  fertilizing 
value  to  2000  pounds  of  seed,  in  order  to  make  an  even 
exchange  of  seed  for  meal,  the  farmer  must  get  enough 
meal  in  addition  to  the  1000  pounds  to  pay  the  expense 
of  making  the  exchange. 

When  cotton  seed  are  used  as  a  fertilizer  for  cotton,  a 
common  practice  is  to  apply  them  in  the  drill  in  mid- 
winter. This  prevents  the  seed  from  growing.  If  applied 
late  they  should  first  be  crushed  or  their  vitality  destroyed 
by  composting  or  by  wetting  and  subsequently  allowing 
them  to  heat. 

94.  Need  of  cotton  soils  for  nitrogen.  —  The  sandy 
and  sandy  loam  soils  of  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  Coastal 
Plain  comprise  a  large  percentage  of  the  area  devoted  to 
1  Duggar,  J.  F.,  "  Southern  Field  Crops,"  p.  326. 


86          FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

cotton  in  the  United  States.  These  soils  are  extremely 
deficient  in  both  organic  matter  and  nitrogen.  There  are 
at  least  three  important  reasons  for  this.  (1)  The  cropping 
systems  have  been  such  as  to  return  very  little  organic 
matter  and  nitrogen.  (2)  The  open,  porous  character  of 
these  soils  hastens  the  oxidation  and  destruction  of  what- 
ever vegetable  matter  is  applied.  (3)  The  abundant  rain- 
fall of  the  region  together  with  the  porous  nature  of  the 
soils  causes  the  soluble  nitrogen  to  leach  away  rapidly. 
The  same  conditions  also  cause  much  loss  of  nitrogen  on 
account  of  erosion. 

This  deficiency  of  nitrogen  is  also  noticeable  on  much 
of  the  clay  soils  in  the  cotton-belt.  Most  of  the  Houston 
black  clay  of  north  and  central  Texas,  central  Alabama, 
and  northeastern  Mississippi,  has  continuously  been 
cropped  to  cotton  until  it  is  nitrogen  hungry.  Green- 
manure  crops  rather  than  commercial  fertilizers  should 
be  employed  to  restore  this  nitrogen. 

95.  Phosphatic  fertilizers.  —  Acid  phosphate  is  the 
material  most  universally  used  by  cotton  growers  as  a 
source  of  phosphoric  acid.  Other  materials  of  secondary 
importance  are  raw  rock  phosphate,  ground  bone,  and 
slag  phosphate. 

Add  phosphate.  —  This  is  a  manufactured  product 
made  by  treating  ground  raw  rock  phosphate,  Ca3(PO4)2 
with  an  equal  weight  of  sulfuric  acid,  (H2SO4).  This 
results  in  the  replacement  of  part  of  the  phosphoric  acid 
by  sulfuric  acid,  thus  forming  monocalcium  phosphate, 
CaH4(PO4)2,  and  calcium  sulfate,  CaS04  as  the  chief 
constituents: 

Ca8(PO4)2  plus  2  H2SO4  equals  CaH4(P04)2  plus  2  CaS04. 
Phosphoric  acid  in  the  form  of  tricalcium  phosphate  is 


FERTILIZERS,  ROTATIONS  FOR  COTTON         87 

insoluble,  whereas  that  in  monocalcium  phosphate  is 
easily  soluble  and  therefore  available  to  plants.  The  object 
of  the  sulfuric  acid  treatment,  therefore,  is  to  render  the 
phosphoric  acid  soluble.  Acid  phosphate  is  also  made  by 
treating  ground  bone  with  sulfuric  acid.  Ordinarily  acid 
phosphate  contains  from  12  to  16  per  cent  of  soluble 
phosphoric  acid.  As  a  rule,  about  one-fourth  of  acid  phos- 
phate consists  of  phosphates  (chiefly  monocalcium  phos- 
phate) while  three-fourths  consists  of  calcium  sulfate  and 
impurities.  The  calcium  sulfate  is  a  soil  stimulant  and  no 
doubt,  in  many  cases,  the  effects  produced  from  applying 
acid  phosphate  are  partially  due  to  the  action  of  calcium 
sulfate  in  making  soluble  certain  mineral  elements  of  plant- 
food  in  the  soil.  The  principal  reason  why  acid  phosphate 
is  so  universally  used  by  cotton  growers  is  that  it  gives 
quick  results  due  to  the  readily  soluble  form  in  which  the 
phosphoric  acid  is  contained. 

Raw  rock  phosphate.  —  This  material  is  used  very  little 
by  cotton  growers.  It  consists  of  the  finely  ground  phos- 
phate rock  without  any  acid  treatment.  Consequently 
the  phosphoric  acid  contained  is  very  difficultly  soluble. 
On  soils  that  are  devoid  of  organic  matter  it  produces 
practically  no  results.  However,  experiments  that  have 
been  conducted  at  the  Illinois,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania  and 
Maryland  Experiment  Stations,  indicate  that  on  soils  well 
provided  with  decaying  organic  matter,  raw  rock  phos- 
phate is  a  very  profitable  source  of  phosphoric  acid.  The 
organic  acids  produced  as  by-products  in  the  decomposi- 
tion of  the  organic  matter  act  upon  the  raw  rock  phosphate 
changing  a  part  of  the  phosphoric  acid  into  an  available 
form.  In  the  event  that  future  investigations  establish 
the  fact  that  raw  rock  phosphate  may  be  made  to  mate- 
rially increase  the  yield  of  cotton  when  applied  to  soils 


88          FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

rich  in  organic  matter,  it  will  furnish  the  cotton  farmer 
a  very  much  cheaper  source  of  phosphoric  acid  than  acid 
phosphate.  Raw  rock  phosphate  contains  from  28  to  30 
per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid. 

96.  Need  of  cotton  soils  for  phosphoric  acid.  —  The 
need  of  phosphatic  fertilizers  in  the  production  of  cotton 
is  almost  universal  on  the  Norfolk,  Orangeburg,  and  Sus- 
quehanna  soils  comprising  the  greater  part  of  the  Atlantic 
and  Gulf  Coastal  Plain  region.     Analyses  have  shown 
much  of  these  soils  to  contain  less  than  200  pounds  of 
phosphoric  acid  to  the  acre.     (For  such  a  calculation  the 
depth  of  the  soil  is  considered  to  be  seven  inches.) 

A  permanently  profitable  system  of  agriculture  can 
never  be  established  on  these  soils  without  the  more  or 
less  continued  use  of  phosphate  fertilizers.  The  rich 
alluvial  soils  of  the  Mississippi  River  and  the  Houston 
black  clays  of  Texas,  Alabama,  and  Mississippi,  con- 
stitute the  most  important  cotton  soils  that  are  not  at 
present  considered  to  be  in  need  of  phosphatic  fertilizers. 

Experience  has  taught  that  practically  all  of  the  sands 
and  sandy  loam  soils  and  much  of  the  upland  clays  in  the 
cotton-belt,  except  the  arid  section  of  west  Texas,  are 
benefited  by  the  application  of  phosphates. 

97.  Potassic  fertilizers.  —  There  are  three  materials 
that  furnish  the  potash  in  cotton  fertilizers.     These  are 
kainit,  muriate  of  potash,  and  sulfate  of  potash.    Of  these 
three,  kainit  is  most  largely  used.    Experiments  have  not 
shown  that  a  pound  of  potash  in  kainit,  when  applied  to 
cotton,  is  more  effective  than  an  equal  amount  in  muriate 
or  sulfate  of  potash.    The  farmer  should  buy  the  material 
in  which  he  can  get  the  potash  cheapest. 

Kainit  is  a  low-grade  material  containing  approxi- 
mately 12  per  cent  of  potash,  largely  in  the  form  of  sulfate. 


FERTILIZERS,  ROTATIONS  FOR  COTTON         89 

It  also  contains  considerable  quantities  of  magnesium 
sulfate  and  magnesium  chloride.  It  is  highly  probable 
that  part  of  the  effect  produced  from  adding  kainit  is  due 
to  the  stimulating  effects  of  these  magnesium  salts. 

Muriate  of  potash  and  sulfate  of  potash  are  high-grade 
materials  containing  approximately  50  per  cent  of  actual 
potash.  For  this  reason  it  often  happens  that  potash  can 
be  purchased  cheaper  in  these  materials  than  in  kainit 
because  of  the  decreased  freight  rate  a  unit  of  potash 
secured.  All  of  these  potash  fertilizers  have  been  secured 
from  extensive  salt  deposits  in  the  region  of  the  Harz 
Mountains  in  northern  Germany. 

98.  Need  of  cotton  soils  for  potash.  —  Soils  of  the 
cotton-belt  are  in  less  need  of  potassic  fertilizers  than  of 
phosphatic  or  nitrogenous  materials.    The  principal  rea- 
sons for  this  are:  (1)  these  soils,  in  general,  contain  larger 
natural  supplies  of  potash  than  of  nitrogen  or  phosphoric 
acid;  and  (2)  in  ordinary  farm  practice  the  stalks  of  cotton, 
corn,  and  the  like  which  contain  most  of  the  potash 
taken  up  by  the  crop  are  more  often  returned  to  the  soil 
than  the  seed  or  seed  products,  which  contain  most  of 
the  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid. 

The  sandy  soils  and  often  the  sandy  loams  are  usually 
deficient  in  potash  and  consequently  respond  profitably 
to  potassic  fertilizers.  Clay  soils,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
they  have  been  produced  largely  from  the  weathering  of 
potassic  feldspars  are  usually  rich  in  potash. 

99.  Potash  fertilizers  check  rust.  —  Experience  has 
shown  that  potash  fertilizers  often  greatly  decrease  the 
injury  produced  by  cotton  rust.     As  to  whether  this  is 
due  to  a  fungicidal  action  of  the  potash  or  whether  it 
merely  gives  the  cotton  plants  greater  power  of  rust- 
resistance  is  not  known.    It  seems  to  help  the  plants  to 


90          FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

remain  green  and  thrifty  through  periods  of  drouth. 
Duggar  suggests  that  potash  probably  reduces  the  amount 
of  water  necessary  to  keep  the  plants  in  health.1 

100.  A  fertilizer  test  for  cotton.  —  Soils  differ  in  their 
requirements  for  fertilizers  even  when  growing  the  same 
crop  for  two  important  reasons.  (1)  The  natural  plant- 
food  content  of  soils  is  very  variable.  (2)  The  past  treat- 
ment of  a  soil  is  important  in  determining  its  fertilizer 
needs.  The  continuous  growth  of  one  crop  may  exhaust 
one  plant-food  element  more  rapidly  than  others.  For  the 
above  reasons  the  farmer  should  make  tests  of  different 
fertilizing  mixtures  with  the  view  of  determining  those 
most  profitable  for  his  particular  soil.  The  soil  on  which 
this  test  is  conducted  should  be  level,  of  uniform  pro- 
ductiveness, and  representative  of  the  soil  type  upon 
which  the  general  crop  of  cotton  is  to  be  grown.  A  con- 
venient and  satisfactory  size  of  plot  for  each  fertilizer 
treatment  is  one-tenth  of  an  acre.  Eight  rows,  136  feet 
long  and  4  feet  apart,  represent  an  area  of  approximately 
one-tenth  acre.  In  order  that  the  adjacent  conditions 
of  all  plots  be  similar,  the  various  plots  should  be  sep- 
arated from  each  other  by  an  unfertilized  row  of  cotton, 
known  as  the  "  guard  row."  To  one  making  this  test 
the  following  treatment  of  the  various  plots  is  recom- 
mended, it  being  assumed  that  the  plots  are  of  the  size 
recommended  above: 

Plot 2  1.  No  fertilizer. 

Plot    2.  20  pounds  of  cotton-seed  meal. 

Plot    3.  20  pounds  of  14  per  cent  acid  phosphate. 

Plot    4.     8  pounds  of  kainit. 

1  J.  F.  Duggar,  "Southern  Field  Crops,"  p.  333. 

2  The  term  "plot"  in  this  outline  has  reference  to  8  rows,  136  feet 
long  and  4  feet  apart. 


FERTILIZERS,  ROTATIONS  FOR  COTTON         91 

Plot   5.  No  fertilizer. 

Plot    6.  20  pounds  each  of  acid  phosphate  and  cotton-seed  meal. 

Plot    7.  20  pounds  of  cotton-seed  meal  and  8  pounds  of  kainit. 

Plot   8.  20  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  and  8  pounds  of  kainit. 

Plot   9.  20  pounds  each  of  acid  phosphate  and  cotton-seed  meal  and 

8  pounds  of  kainit. 
Plot  10.  No  fertilizer. 

When  the  cotton  is  well  up  it  should  be  thinned,  special 
care  being  exercised  to  see  that  the  stand  is  uniform  for 
all  plots;  otherwise  the  results  will  not  be  comparable. 
Likewise  the  cultivation  and  in  fact  all  treatment  except 
the  fertilizer  treatment  should  be  the  same  for  all  plots. 
At  harvest  time  the  seed  cotton  from  each  plot  should  be 
carefully  weighed.  By  comparing  the  yield  of  each  ferti- 
lized plot  with  that  from  the  nearest  unfertilized  plot  one 
can  determine  the  effectiveness  of  the  various  treatments. 
A  test  of  this  nature  should  be  repeated  for  several  years 
as  it  is  known  that  seasonal  conditions  influence  somewhat 
the  action  of  fertilizers. 

101.  Judging  fertilizer  needs  by  appearance  of 
plants.  —  In  general,  a  rank  growth  of  stalks  and  leaves 
associated  with  a  rich  green  color  indicate  an  abundance 
of  nitrogen  in  the  soil.  On  the  other  hand,  small  growth 
and  pale  color  are  not  necessarily  indicative  of  nitrogen 
starvation  as  any  kind  of  malnutrition  will  produce  imper- 
fect growth.  It  is  thought  that  phosphoric  acid  is  closely 
associated  with  the  fruiting  process  and  that  poorly 
fruited  plants  indicate  a  deficiency  of  phosphorus.  While 
these  indications  are  often  correct,  they  do  not  constitute 
a  safe  criterion  of  fertilizer  needs.  It  is  not  possible  to 
give  accurate  directions  whereby  one  can  tell  from  the 
appearance  of  the  crop  what  plant-food  is  lacking  in  the 
soil. 


92          FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

102.  Home-mixing    fertilizers.  -  -  The    farmer    who 
makes  a  practice  of  purchasing  ready-mixed  fertilizers 
usually  pays  more  for  the  plant-foods  secured  than  would 
have  been  the  case  had  he  purchased  the  incomplete 
materials  and  mixed  them  at  home.    The  most  economical 
use  of  fertilizers  is  possible  only  when  a  fertilizer  test  is 
made  and  the  materials  bought,  mixed,  and  applied  in 
accordance  with  the  needs  of  the  soil  as  indicated  by  this 
test.     To  assume  that  any  particular  brand  of  fertilizer 
is  universally  best  for  cotton  is  also  an  assumption  that 
all  cotton  soils  are  alike  as  regards  their  fertilizer  needs 
—  an  assumption  that  is  grossly  absurd. 

103.  Time  of  applying  fertilizers.  —  Such  fertilizing 
materials    as    acid    phosphate,    cotton-seed    meal,    dried 
blood,  tankage,  and  the  potash  fertilizers  should  be  ap- 
plied either  a  short  while  before  or  at  the  time  of  planting. 
Phosphoric  acid  is  readily  fixed  in  the  soil.    There  is  little 
danger  from  leaching  as  it  becomes  well  distributed  in  the 
soil  and  soon  changes  to  insoluble  forms.    The  organic  ni- 
trogenous fertilizers  all  have  to  be  oxidized  and  converted 
into  nitrates  before  they  are  of  value  to  the  crop.    Potash 
is  very  quickly  fixed  in  the  soil  by  the  double  silicates. 
As  a  result  of  these  properties  of  the  above  materials, 
experiments  have  shown  no  material  gains  from  the  prac- 
tice of  postponing  the  application  of  the  fertilizers  until 
the  crop  is  up  and  growing.    However,  where  very  heavy 
applications  are  to  be  made,  better  results  are  usually 
secured  by  saving  a  part  of  the  fertilizer  for  intercultural 
applications. 

If  nitrate  of  soda  is  to  be  used,  it  should  be  applied  after 
the  plants  have  begun  growth. 

104.  Methods   of   applying   fertilizers.  —  When   fer- 
tilizers are  applied  to  cotton  in  amounts  less  than  400 


FERTILIZERS,  ROTATIONS  FOR  COTTON          93 

pounds  to  the  acre,  they  are  usually,  drilled  in.  Larger 
applications  may  be  applied  broadcast  or  partly  broad- 
cast and  partly  in  the  drill. 

There  are  three  methods  of  drilling  fertilizers  for  cotton : 
(1)  by  hand  distribution;  (2)  by  the  use  of  a  fertilizer 
distributor;  (3)  by  the  use  of  a  combined  fertilizer  distribu- 
tor and  planter.  In  drilling  fertilizers  by  any  of  the  above 
methods,  one  should  be  careful  to  see  that  such  materials 
as  cotton-seed  meal  and  the  potash  fertilizers  are  not 
allowed  to  come  in  direct  contact  with  the  seed,  as  this 
is  likely  to  interfere  with  germination.  When  fertilizers 
are  distributed  by  hand,  a  small  shovel  plow  or  other 
suitable  implement  should  be  run  in  the  drill  to  mix  the 
fertilizer  with  the  soil.  In  sections  where  the  practice  is 
to  ridge  the  soil  for  cotton,  the  fertilizers  are  first  distrib- 
uted in  the  drill  and  the  ridge  subsequently  formed  im- 
mediately over  the  fertilizer.  The  ridge  is  then  partially 
harrowed  down  and  the  seed  planted,  preferably  by  means 
of  a  planter,  directly  over  the  fertilizer.  The  fertilizer 
distributors  usually  cover  the  fertilizer  sufficiently  to 
protect  the  seed.  When  fertilizers  are  broadcast  they 
should  be  thoroughly  harrowed  into  the  soil  before  the 
crop  is  planted. 

In  case  nitrate  of  soda  is  to  be  applied  during  the  grow- 
ing season,  it  should  be  distributed  uniformly  in  the  mid- 
dles and  worked  in  with  a  cultivator. 

105.  Fertilizer  formulas  for  cotton.  —  Owing  to  the 
varying  needs  of  cotton  soils  for  fertilizers  one  can 
only  generalize  in  giving  fertilizer  formulas  for  this 
crop.  The  few  formulas  given  below  are  to  be  used 
merely  as  guides.  They  are  not  to  be  adhered  to 
strictly. 

The  following  formula  is  recommended  by  Halligan  for 


94  FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

"Louisiana  and  other  parts  of  the  South  where  the  soil 
is  rich  in  available  potash:" 

150-200  pounds  cotton-seed  meal  |        , 
150-200  pounds  acid  phosphate    J  t( 

The  Georgia  Experiment  Station  recommends  the  follow- 
ing fertilizer  for  cotton  on  old,  worn  uplands: 

Acid  phosphate         1000  pounds  1 

Cotton-seed  meal        671  pounds  I  400  to  800  pounds  to  the  acre. 

Kainit  296  pounds  J 

For  the  sandy  soils  of  east  Texas,  the  Texas  Experiment 
Station  recommends  the  following  fertilizer : 

100  pounds  of  16  per  cent  acid  phosphate  1        , 
200  pounds  of  cotton-seed  meal  J  t( 

On  extremely  sandy  soils,  from  50  to  75  pounds  of  muriate 
of  potash  or  200  pounds  of  kainit  should  be  added  to  the 
fertilizer  mixture. 

FARM   MANURES   FOR  COTTON 

The  cotton  farmer,  as  a  rule,  uses  very  little  farm 
manure.  The  chief  reason  for  this  is  that  on  the  average 
cotton  farm,  very  little  stock  is  kept  other  than  the  work 
stock  necessary  to  produce  the  cotton.  The  limited  supply 
of  manure  produced  is  often  allowed  to  go  to  waste  or  is  so 
improperly  managed  as  to  be  of  very  inferior  quality. 

106.  Stable  manure  for  cotton.  —  Notwithstanding 
the  limited  use  of  stable  -manure  by  cotton-growers,  farm 
experience  and  experiments  have  rendered  unquestionable 
the  high  value  of  this  material  when  used  in  connection 
with  proper  systems  of  cotton  production.  It  lends  itself 
most  readily  to  those  systems  in  which  cotton  is  produced 
in  rotation  with  other  crops.  In  such  cases  the  manure 


FERTILIZERS,  ROTATIONS  FOR  COTTON         95 

usually  is  applied  to  some  crop  in  the  rotation  other  than 
cotton,  preferably  corn,  thus  allowing  the  cotton  crop  to 
get  the  residual  effect  of  the  manure.  The  direct  applica- 
tion of  the  manure  to  the  cotton  often  extends  the  grow- 
ing season  of  the  plants,  delays  maturity  and  hence  de- 
creases the  possible  yield  and  profit,  especially  in  sections 
subject  to  the  ravages  of  the  boll-weevil.  In  case  it  is 
necessary  to  apply  the  manure  directly  to  the  cotton  crop, 
the  application  should  be  made  in  the  fall  preceding  the 
growth  of  the  crop  and  should  be  immediately  plowed 
under.  This  is  especially  important  on  clay  soils,  as  de- 
composition takes  place  slowly  in  heavy  soils  and  the 
constituents  of  the  fresh  manure  become  available  slowly. 
As  the  clays  possess  very  powerful  absorptive  properties, 
the  value  of  the  manure  will  not  be  lost  as  a  result  of  its 
early  application.  In  sandy  soils,  on  the  other  hand, 
unless  the  season  is  dry,  the  conditions  are  such  that  the 
manure  decomposes  readily,  and  there  is  greater  danger 
that  some  of  the  soluble  constituents  will  be  carried  away 
in  the  drainage  water. 

Stable  manure  is  usually  broadcast  at  the  rate  of  6  to 
12  tons  to  the  acre.  Heavy  applications  generally  return 
greater  profits  to  the  acre  of  land  while  light  applications 
give  larger  profits  to  the  ton  of  manure  applied. 

107.  Composts  for  cotton.  —  During  the  period  from 
1870  to  1880  composts  received  considerable  attention  as  a 
fertilizer  for  cotton.  Within  recent  years,  their  use  for  this 
purpose  has  decreased  as  it  has  been  found  that,  in  many 
cases,  the  improvement  is  not  sufficient  to  compensate 
for  the  trouble  and  cost  of  making  them. 

The  increased  interest  manifested  in  compost  by  cotton 
farmers  during  the  period  from  1870  to  1880  was  due 
largely  to  the  writings  of  Parish  Furman,  of  Baldwin 


96          FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

County,  Georgia.  Furman  recommended  the  composting 
of  such  nitrogenous  materials  as  cotton  seed  and  barnyard 
manure  with  acid  phosphate  and  kainit  for  the  purpose  of 
providing  a  " complete  fertilizer"  at  a  lower  price  than 
that  which  was  being  paid  for  the  ammoniated  guanos 
so  extensively  used  at  that  time.  Furman's  formula,  as 
originally  recommended  was  as  follows: 

Barnyard  manure 750  pounds 

Cotton  seed 750  pounds 

Acid  phosphate 367  pounds 

Kainit 133  pounds 

In  addition  to  the  above  materials,  farmers  often  added 
considerable  absorbent  earth.  The  general  plan  followed 
in  making  the  compost  heap  was  first  to  put  down  a  layer 
of  20  to  25  bushels  of  stable  manure,  and  to  cover  this  with 
an  equal  amount  of  cotton  seed.  Next,  200  pounds  of 
acid  phosphate  was  applied  and  occasionally  kainit  was 
added  to  the  mixture.  Absorbent  earth  was  used  at  fre- 
quent intervals  in  sufficient  amounts  to  cover  the  entire 
heap. 

The  benefits  derived  from  adding  the  acid  phosphate 
were:  (1)  it  supplied  the  deficiency  of  phosphoric  acid  in 
composts;  and  (2)  it  added  calcium  sulfate  (an  important 
constituent  of  acid  phosphate),  which  prevents  the  loss  of 
ammonia  during  fermentation.  The  absorbent  earth  also 
prevented  the  loss  of  ammonia. 

A  few  days  before,  or  at  the  time  of  planting,  the  com- 
post is  thoroughly  mixed  and  applied  in  the  drill  at  the 
rate  of  400  to  800  pounds  to  the  acre. 

GREEN-MANURES  AND  ROTATIONS  FOR  COTTON 

108.  Need  of  organic  matter.  --  The  most  profitable 
use  of  commercial  fertilizers  in  the  production  of  cotton  is 


FERTILIZERS,  ROTATIONS  FOR  COTTON         97 

possible  only  when  an  adequate  supply  of  organic  matter 
is  maintained  in  the  soil.  No  greater  error  can  be  made 
by  the  cotton-grower  than  that  of  depending  upon  commer- 
cial fertilizers  to  overcome  the  ill  effects  produced  by  a 
deficiency  of  vegetable  matter,  poor  tillage,  and  lack  of 
drainage.  In  this  connection  it  is  well  to  remember,  (1) 
that  the  primary  function  of  commercial  fertilizers  is  to 
add  plant-food  to  the  soil,  and  (2)  that  plant-food  is  only 
one  of  the  several  factors  essential  to  the  profitable  produc- 
tion of  crops. 

The  ability  of  the  crop  to  obtain  plant-food  and  moisture 
from  the  soil,  and  also  profitably  to  utilize  the  nutrients 
supplied  in  fertilizers  is  determined  largely  by  the  physical 
condition  of  the  soil,  and  the  solvent  power  of  the  soil 
water.  Decaying  vegetable  matter  produces  that  physical 
condition  necessary  for  the  proper  aeration  of  the  soil  and 
also  supplies  by-products  which,  when  dissolved  in  the 
soil  water,  greatly  increase  its  solvent  power  for  plant- 
food.  As  a  result  of  these  effects,  the  organic  matter  de- 
creases the  need  for  fertilizers  in  the  production  of  cotton 
on  soils  that  are  well  supplied  with  the  mineral  plant- 
foods  and  renders  much  more  effective  the  mineral  fer- 
tilizers that  are  essential  on  soils  in  which  the  mineral 
plant-food  naturally  is  somewhat  deficient.  The  most 
important  source  of  organic  matter  for  soils  in  the  cotton- 
belt  is  that  of  green-manures. 

109.  Suitable  crops  for  green-manure.  —  Crops  suit- 
able for  use  as  green-manures  in  the  cotton-belt  are  of  two 
classes;  legumes  and  non-legumes.  Of  the  first  class,  the 
cowpea,  soy  bean,  crimson  clover,  bur  clover,  vetch, 
melilotus,  and  the  velvet  bean  are  most  important.  Be- 
longing to  the  second  class  are  rye,  oats,  wheat,  barley, 
and  millet. 


98          FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

110.  Green-manures  and  the  supply  of  organic  mat- 
ter. —  Ordinarily,    cowpeas,    soy    beans,    and    crimson 
clover  will  yield  at  least  !}/£  tons  of  dry  matter  to  the  acre 
in  tops  and  roots.    This  dry  matter  when  plowed  into  the 
soil  is  equivalent  to  an  application  of  six  tons  of  average 
barnyard  manure,  containing  25  per  cent  dry  matter  and 
75  per  cent  water.    Very  few  farmers  in  the  cotton -belt 
produce  a  sufficient  amount  of  barnyard  manure  to  enable 
them  to  apply  six  tons  of  manure  to  every  acre  of  cul- 
tivated land  on  their  farms  once  every  four  years.    Prac- 
tically all  of  them  can  easily  add  the  equivalent  of  this 
much  manure  to  their  soils  once  every  three  or  four  years 
by  the  use  of  green-manures.    Whether  or  not  the  entire 
crop  should  be  plowed  into  the  soil,  or  merely  the  roots 
and  stubble,  will  be  determined  largely  by  the  needs  of  the 
soil  for  organic  matter  and  nitrogen.     On  soils  that  are 
quite  deficient  in  organic  matter,  it  will  in  general  be  a 
good  practice  to  return  the  entire  crop.     Otherwise,  the 
crop  should  be  harvested  for  hay  and  the  manure  returned 
to  the  soil. 

The  Alabama  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  reports 
an  increase  in  yield  in  one  case  of  696  pounds  of  seed  cotton 
to  the  acre,  or  83  per  cent,  due  to  plowing  under  a  crop  of 
cowpea  vines  on  land  which  had  been  in  cotton  the  pre- 
vious season. 

111.  Green-manure  crops  and  the  nitrogen  supply.  — 
Nitrogen  is  the  most  costly  constituent  of  commercial 
fertilizers,  its  commercial  value  usually  ^being  more  than 
three  times  that  of  either  phosphoric  acid  or  potash.    For 
this  reason  the  farmer  should  attempt  to  secure  from  the 
air  (which  is  4/5  nitrogen)  the  greatest  part  of  the  nitrogen 
needed  in  the  production  of  his  crops  by  the  introduction 
of  legumes  into  his  cropping  system. 


FERTILIZERS,  ROTATIONS  FOR  COTTON         99 

A  crop  of  cowpeas  yielding  1J/2  tons  of  hay  to  the  acre 
will,  if  returned  to  the  soil,  increase  the  nitrogen  supply 
supply  approximately  65  pounds  to  the  acre.  This  is 
assuming  that  the  cowpea  secures  from  40  to  45  pounds 
of  nitrogen  from  the  air  for  each  ton  of  hay  it  produces, 
the  nitrogen  contained  in  the  roots  and  stubble  being  no 
more  than  that  furnished  by  the  average  soil.  To  add 
this  much  nitrogen  would  require  930  pounds  of  cotton- 
seed meal  or  433  pounds  of  sodium  nitrate.  In  addition, 
the  organic  matter  supplied  by  the  cowpeas  is  usually  of 
greater  value  than  the  nitrogen.  Similar  yields  of  soy 
beans  and  crimson  clover  would  supply  to  an  acre,  75  and 
70  pounds  of  nitrogen,  respectively. 

Non-leguminous  green-manure  crops,  such  as  the  small- 
grains,  millet,  and  the  like,  while  not  increasing  the 
amount  of  nitrogen  in  the  soil  are,  nevertheless,  nitrogen 
savers,  owing  to  the  fact  that  they  prevent  loss  from 
leaching  and  erosion. 

112.  Will  crop  rotation  maintain  fertility?  —  It  must 
not  be  assumed  that  growing  cotton  in  a  rotation  which 
supplies  the  soil  with  an  abundance  of  organic  matter 
will  necessarily  eliminate  the  need  of  commercial  fertil- 
izers.   Such  a  system  will  render  the  use  of  nitrogenous 
fertilizers  unnecessary,   and  mineral  fertilizers  will  not 
be  needed  on  soils  that  contain  an  abundant  natural 
supply  of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash.    However,  much 
of  the   soils  in   the   cotton-belt  are  quite   deficient  in 
phosphoric  acid  and,  to  a  less  extent,  in  potash.    Maxi- 
mum yields  on  these  soils  cannot  be  obtained  without 
the  application  of  materials  containing  phosphoric  acid 
and  potash. 

113.  Rotations  for  cotton.  —  A  good  rotation  applica- 
ble to  the  greater  part  of  the  cotton-belt  is:  first  year, 


100        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

cotton;  second  year,  corn  and  cowpeas;  third  year,  winter 
oats  or  wheat  followed  by  cowpeas  as  a  catch  crop. 

If  the  farmer  wishes  to  grow  more  cotton  than  is  pro- 
vided by  the  above  rotation,  he  should  grow  cotton  two 
years  in  succession,  and  thus  employ  a  four-year  rotation. 

For  thin  land  the  Georgia  Experiment  Station  recom- 
mends the  following  rotation:  First  year,  corn  with  cow- 
peas;  second  year,  oats  or  wheat  followed  by  cowpeas; 
third  year,  oats  or  wheat  followed  by  cowpeas;  fourth 
year,  cotton. 

In  the  northeastern  part;  of  the  cotton-belt,  the  follow- 
ing rotation  is  rather  widely  applicable:  First  year,  corn 
with  cowpeas;  second  year,  peanuts;  third  year,  cotton; 
fourth  year,  cotton. 

In  many  sections,  crimson  clover  is  grown  following 
cotton  and  preceding  corn. 


CHAPTER  IX 
TILLAGE  FOR  COTTON 

THE  tillage  practices  employed  in  the  production  of 
cotton  are,  as  a  rule,  very  poor.  At  least  five  reasons  can 
be  given  for  this.  (1)  A  relatively  large  percentage  of 
the  cotton  crop  is  produced  on  "  one-horse  "  farms,  where 
thorough  plowing  and  the  use  of  improved  implements 
are  impossible.  (2)  A  scarcity  of  heavy  draft  animals 
is  often  the  cause  of  poor  tillage  practices  even  on  the  large 
farms.  (3)  A  large  percentage  of  the  acreage  in  cotton 
is  tilled  by  renters  rather  than  landowners.  In  most  cases 
little  or  no  direct  supervision  of  farm  operations  is  given 
by  the  landowner,  and,  as  a  result,  very  superficial  tillage 
is  practiced.  (4)  Many  unprofitable  practices  employed 
in  the  early  days  of  cotton  production  in  the  South  have 
become  more  or  less  traditional,  being  handed  down  from 
one  generation  to  the  next.  (5)  Little  knowledge  of  the 
fundamental  principles  underlying  the  growth  and  nu- 
trition of  crops. 

While  tillage  practices  vary  somewhat  in  accordance 
with  soil  and  climatic  conditions,  the  cotton-grower  must 
remember  that  all  practices  are  based  on  principles  and 
reasons,  a  knowledge  of  which  is  absolutely  essential 
to  maximum  success. 

PREPARATION   OF  THE   SEED-BED 

The  most  important  single  factor  in  the  profitable 
production  of  cotton  is  the  preparation  of  the  seed-bed. 

101 


102         FIELD  CROPS  FOP,  THE  COTTON-BELT 

No  amount  of  good  tillage  after  the  crop  is  planted  can 
offset  the  ill  effects  of  careless  preparation  of  the  soil. 

114.  Drainage  the  first  essential.  —  Until  adequate 
provision  has  been  made  for  the  rapid  removal  of  all 
surplus  or  gravitational  water  from  the  upper  portions 
of  the  soil,  a  suitable  seed-bed  for  cotton  cannot  be  pre- 
pared.   The  experience  of  many  years  has  demonstrated 
beyond  question  the  fact  that  such  modern  and  essential 
practices  as  early  deep  plowing,  the  incorporation  of  or- 
ganic matter,  and  thorough  and  frequent  cultivation  are 
of  no  avail  on  a  water-logged  soil.  The  discussion  of  suit- 
able tillage  practices  for  cotton  which  follows  is  based  on 
the  assumption  that  adequate  drainage  has  in  all  cases 
been  provided. 

115.  Disposal   of    stalks   and   litter.  —  If    cotton    is 
grown  in  a  suitable  rotation  with  other  crops,  there  is 
usually  little  difficulty  in  plowing  under  all  existing  vege- 
tation, owing  to  the  fact  that  cotton  commonly  follows  a 
small-grain  crop  or  a  legume  crop.    On  most  farms,  how- 
ever, cotton  follows  cotton  and  in  such  cases  it  becomes 
necessary  to  chop  or  break  to  pieces  the  stalks  previous 
to  plowing.    This  is  most  satisfactorily  done  by  the  use 
of  a  stalk  cutter,  the  blades  of  which  cut  the  stalks  into 
short  pieces.    In  many  cases  the  stalks  are  broken  to 
pieces  after  they  become  dry  and  brittle  by  means  of  a 
heavy  stick.     The  rather  common  practice  of  plowing 
up,  raking  and  burning  the  stalks  should,  in  all  cases, 
be  avoided. 

116.  Fall  plowing  for  cotton.  —  The  primary  objects 
sought  for  in  the  preparation  of  the  seed-bed  are  an  abun- 
dance of  water,  air,  and  available  food.    On  most  soils 
sufficient  water  and  food  during  the  growing  season  cannot 
be  had  unless  early  fall  plowing  is  practiced.    Late  spring 


TILLAGE  FOR  COTTON  103 

plowing  usually  insures  too  much  air  in  the  seed-bed,  caus- 
ing it  to  dry  out  rapidly. 

It  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  matter  of  making 
plant-food  available  in  the  soil  involves  important  and 
far-reaching  chemical  and  biological  processes.  An  im- 
portant object  of  tillage  is  to  hasten  these  processes. 
It  must  be  remembered  also  that  under  favorable  condi- 
tions, considerable  time  is  required  for  these  processes  to 
change  the  inert,  insoluble  soil  constituents  into  a  form 
suitable  for  nourishing  the  plant.  Fall  plowing  starts  these 
processes  to  work  sufficiently  in  advance  of  the  planting 
season  to  insure  the  presence  of  relatively  large  quantities 
of  soluble  food.  On  most  soils  such  is  not  the  case  with 
spring  plowing. 

Another  important  benefit  of  fall  plowing  is  that  it  ena- 
bles the  soil  to  absorb  and  hold  large  quantities  of  water 
during  the  winter  months.  Unplowed  land  retains  but 
little  water.  It  also  gives  whatever  organic  matter  is 
plowed  under  sufficient  time  to  be  transformed  into  humus 
by  the  time  the  crop  is  growing.  Undecomposed  vegetable 
matter  is  of  little  value  in  the  soil.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  has  been  shown  that  a  pound  of  humus  will  store  up 
seven  and  one-half  times  as  much  water  as  a  pound  of 
sand  and  the  sand  will  lose  its  water  by  evaporation  three 
and  one-half  times  more  rapidly  than  the  humus.  A  clay 
soil  can  store  up  only  about  one-fourth  as  much  water  as 
humus  and  will  lose  it  by  evaporation  twice  as  rapidly. 

An  excellent  practice  which  is  coming  into  favor  among 
cotton  farmers  is  to  plant  a  winter-growing  cover-crop  on 
the  land  following  fall  plowing,  which  prevents  the  leach- 
ing of  plant-food  during  the  winter  months,  decreases 
erosion,  and  increases  the  amount  of  vegetable  matter 
in  the  soil  when  it  is  plowed  under  in  late  whiter.  This 


104         FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

practice  necessitates  a  second  plowing  but  the  resulting 
benefits  more  than  repay  the  cost  of  the  extra  labor. 

In  the  semi-arid  sections  of  the  cotton-belt  it  is  usually 
necessary  to  use  some  form  of  subsurface  packer  on 
the  soil  immediately  following  fall  plowing  to  reestablish 
capillarity  and  to  prevent  the  rapid  drying  out  or  blowing 
of  the  soils  during  the  winter. 

117.  Spring  plowing  for  cotton.  —  There  are  certain 
conditions  under  which  deep  fall  plowing  for  cotton  would 
be  objectionable.     This  is  especially  true  on  deep,  light 
sandy  land  subject  to  excessive  leaching,  or  elevated  sandy 
table-lands  which  drift  in  windy  weather.    Where  the  rain- 
fall is  sufficient,  these  soils  are  much  benefited  by  disking 
and  the  planting  of  a  cover-crop  in  the  fall.     Breaking 
should  be  deferred  until  late  winter  or  spring. 

There  are  also  rich,  moist  river-bottom  and  virgin  black 
prairie  soils  in  the  Gulf  states  that  are  best  plowed  in  the 
spring  for  cotton,  owing  to  the  fact  that  they  already  con- 
tain a  surplus  of  available  plant-food,  which  condition 
tends  to  augment  the  growth  of  stalks  at  the  expense  of 
fruit. 

118.  Depth  of  plowing.  —  The  proper  depth  of  break- 
ing cotton  soils  will  depend  upon  the  character  of  the  soil, 
the  time  of  plowing,  and  the  previous  treatment  of  the 
soil.    In  general,  the  soil  may  be  plowed  deeper  in  the  fall 
than  in  the  spring.    In  fact,  deep  plowing  just  previous  to 
planting  is  very  objectionable. 

Clay  soils  should  ultimately  be  plowed  deeper  than 
sands.  The  deepening  of  clay  soils  should  be  accomplished 
gradually  in  order  that  an  excess  of  inert  subsoil  may  not 
be  plowed  up  at  any  one  operation.  The  ideal  practice 
is  to  plow  from  one  to  one-and-a-half  inches  deeper  each 
year  than  the  preceding  year  until  the  desired  depth  is 


TILLAGE  FOR  COTTON  105 

reached.  An  ideal  plan  is  to  use  a  disk  plow  so  set  that  it 
will  not  bring  the  subsoil  to  the  surface.  With  this  im- 
plement the  soil  may  be  deepened  more  rapidly,  than  when 
a  mold-board  plow  is  used. 

The  ultimate  aim  should  be  to  plow  all  cotton  soils, 
except  those  upon  which  spring  plowing  is  advisable,  to  a 
depth  of  at  least  eight  inches.  The  farmer  must  determine 
how  soon  he  can  secure  this  depth  under  his  conditions. 

119.  Subsoiling.  —  This   is    a   term    applied    to    the 
loosening  of  the  subsoil  without  bringing  it  to  the  surface. 
It  is  accomplished  by  first  employing  an  ordinary  turn- 
plow,  and  then  in  its  furrow  running  a  special  subsoil  plow. 
As  this  latter  plow  has  no  mold-board,  it  merely  loosens 
the  subsoil  without  bringing  it  to  the  surface. 

In  the  humid  section  of  the  cotton-belt,  fine  textured 
subsoils  often  become  so  close  and  compact  as  a  result 
of  the  abundant  rainfall,  that  air  and  water  penetrate 
them  with  difficulty.  Such  soils  are  usually  benefited 
by  subsoiling,  although  the  benefits  may  not  be  notice- 
able the  first  year.  Soils  with  more  or  less  porous  sub- 
soils are  not  benefited  by  the  use  of  the  subsoil  plow  at 
any  time. 

If  profitable  results  are  to  be  expected  from  subsoiling, 
the  following  facts  must  be  kept  in  mind:  (1)  This  opera- 
tion should  be  practiced  only  in  the  fall.  This  gives  the 
subsoil  sufficient  time  to  become  settled  before  planting 
time.  (2)  It  is  never  advisable  to  use  the  subsoil  plow  when 
the  subsoil  is  saturated  with  moisture,  even  though  the 
top  soil  is  dry.  This  merely  puddles  and  packs  the  sub- 
soil, whereas  the  object  is  to  loosen  it. 

120.  Subsequent  tillage.  —  After   the  soil   has   been 
plowed,  such  tillage  should  be  given  as  will  produce  a 
rather  firm,  well-pulverized  seed-bed  with  a  loose  mulch 


106        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

on  the  surface.  Where  the  land  has  been  fall-plowed  and 
no  cover-crop  planted,  it  is  necessary  that  the  soil  be 
harrowed  as  soon  after  heavy  rains  during  the  winter 
months  as  possible  in  order  to  prevent  the  rapid  evapora- 
tion of  moisture.  Such  soils  will  usually  require  a  thorough 
disking  in  the  spring  as  they  are  likely  to  become  compact 
as  a  result  of  the  winter  rains. 

Spring-plowed  soils  should  be  immediately  harrowed 
after  plowing  thoroughly  to  pulverize  all  clods  and  to 
more  or  less  firm  the  soil.  If  harrowing  is  deferred  until 
the  clods  become  dry,  the  task  of  pulverizing  then  becomes 
very  laborious. 

The  implements  commonly  used  to  work  the  plowed 
soil  into  a  good  seed-bed  are  the  disk  harrow,  the  spring- 
tooth  harrow,  and  the  smoothing  harrow.  A  subsurface 
packer  is  profitably  used  on  soils  plowed  in  the  late  spring. 
A  disk  harrow  can  be  made  to  serve  the  same  purpose  by 
weighting  it  and  by  having  the  disks  set  with  only  a  slight 
angle  to  them. 

121.  Ridging  versus  level  preparation.  —  The  almost 
universal  practice  in  the  South  is  to  plant  cotton  on  ridges 
or  beds.  This  practice  is  based  upon  the  fact  that  when 
bedded  the  soil  warms  up  faster  and  earlier  in  the  spring, 
drainage  is  facilitated  and  it  is  easier  to  get  a  good  stand. 
The  cotton  plant,  being  a  native  of  the  tropics,  demands  a 
high  degree  of  temperature  for  the  germination  of  its  seed. 
It  is  also  true  that  in  many  cases  the  soil  will  run  together 
and  get  very  compact  unless  the  ridging  system  is  prac- 
ticed. Under  these  conditions  there  is  great  danger  that 
the  young  plants  will  be  drowned  out  in  wet  weather. 
The  principal  objection  to  ridging  is  that  it  causes  the  soil 
to  dry  out  rapidly  in  dry  weather  by  greatly  increasing 
the  surface  area  exposed.  This  objection  is  to  an  extent 


TILLAGE  FOR  COTTON  107 

overcome  by  partially  harrowing  or  dragging  down  the 
ridges  before  planting. 

On  sandy,  well-drained  land  farmers  sometimes  plant 
cotton  without  ridging  the  soil.  In  such  cases  very  shallow 
planting  is  necessary  and  extreme  care  must  be  exercised 
to  prevent  covering  the  plants  at  the  first  cultivation. 

In  the  western  part  of  the  cotton-belt  where  the  rainfall 
is  scant,  ridging  for  cotton  is  not  necessary  and  is  often 
detrimental. 

122.  Forming  the  ridges. —  As  a  rule  the  ridges 
should  be  formed  at  least  fifteen  days  before  planting. 
This  allows  the  soil  to  settle  and  become  warm.  On  heavy, 
cold  soils,  ridging  at  an  even  earlier  date  is  advisable.  In 
most  cases  the  ridges  are  formed  by  means  of  an  ordinary 
mold-board  plow,  four  to  six  furrow  slices  being  thrown 
together.  An  improvement  on  this  practice  would  be  the 
use  of  a  double-mold-board  plow,  or  lister,  for  forming  the 
ridges,  as  much  labor  would  thereby  be  saved. 

If  commercial  fertilizers  are  to  be  applied,  a  shovel  plow 
is  first  used  to  open  a  center  furrow  in  which  the  fertilizer 
is  drilled.  The  beds  are  subsequently  formed  immediately 
over  the  fertilizer.  In  many  sections  the  fertilizers  are 
applied  and  listed  upon  about  fifteen  days  before  planting, 
the  ridges  not  being  finished  until  some  ten  days  later. 

In  sections  where  no  fertilizer  is  used,  the  advantage  of  a 
center  furrow  is  a  disputed  question.  If  the  soil  is  loose  at 
the  time  of  forming  the  ridges,  the  use  of  the  center  furrow 
is  usually  of  no  advantage.  However,  in  stiff  land  where 
the  plowing  has  been  done  early,  the  use  of  a  center  furrow 
is  advisable  as  it  provides  deep  and  thorough  preparation 
under  the  center  of  the  beds. 

Just  before  planting,  the  height  of  the  beds  should  be 
reduced  by  means  of  a  harrow  or  drag.  Drawing  a  smooth- 


108         FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

ing  harrow  lengthwise  the  beds  reduces  their  height,  drags 
out  trash  and  clods,  and  flattens  the  surface  preparatory 
to  the  use  of  the  planter.  This  planting  on  relatively  low 
beds  is  quite  important.  The  cultivation  can  be  more 
nearly  level,  thus  conserving  moisture  in  the  summer  when 
it  will  be  needed.  On  well-drained,  sandy  soil,  the  beds 
should  be  dragged  down  almost  level. 

PLANTING 

,123.  Time  of  planting.  —  It  is  not  safe  to  plant  cotton 
until  at  least  two  weeks  after  the  average  date  of  the  last 
killing  frost  m  the  spring.  In  the  extreme  southern  part 
of  the  cotton-belt,  most  of  the  crop  is  planted  in  April, 
whereas  in  the  extreme  northern  part,  planting  does  not 
begin  until  near  the  first  of  May. 

Nothing  is  to  be  gained  by -planting  cotton  before  the 
soil  becomes  warm  in  the  spring.  The  seed  will  either 
rot  rather  than  germinate,  or  the  vigor  of  the  young 
plants  will  be  greatly  decreased.  The  slow  growth  of  the 
plants  under  such  conditions,  greatly  increases  the  cost 
of  cultivation. 

In  sections  subject  to  the  ravages  of  the  boll- weevil, 
cotton  should  be  planted  as  early  as  possible  after  the 
soil  becomes  warm. 

124.  Advantage  of  planting  heavy  seed.  —  Investiga- 
tions conducted  by  .Webber  and  Boykin  strongly  indicate 
the  superiority  of  heavy  cotton  seed  over  light  seed  and  the 
advisability  of  farmers  eliminating  the  light  seed  before 
planting.  These  investigators  found  that  when  the  seed 
are  treated  with  a  paste  made  from  ashes,  acid  phosphate, 
or  fine  dry  soil  or  flour,  the  "linters"  or  "fuzz"  can  be 
pasted  down  and  that  the  seeds  can  thus  be  prevented  from 
clinging  together.  The  separation  is  accomplished  by  the 


TILLAGE  FOR  COTTON 


109 


use  of  an  ordinary  type  of  air  blast  fanning  mill  in  which 
the  flue  is  lengthened  to  four  and  one-half  feet  in  order 
that  the  seed  may  be  exposed  more  fully  to  the  action  of 
the  air.  (For  the  details  of  this  method  the  reader  is 
referred  to  Farmers'  Bulletin  285  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture.)  It  was  found  that  the  heavy 
seed  germinated  better  than  the  light  ones  and  also  gave 
a  higher  yield  of  seed  cotton  as  shown  by  the  following 
data  taken  from  a  report  of  these  investigations : 

TABLE  7.  SHOWING  RELATIVE  VALUE  OF  LIGHT  AND  HEAVY  COTTON 

SEED 


KINDS  OF  SEED  PLANTED 

FIRST 
PICK 

SECOND 
PICK 

THIRD 
PICK 

TOTAL 
YIELD 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Test  atLamar,  S.  C.: 

Heavy  (20  rows)  

375 

2531/4 

419 

1047^/4 

Unseparated  (20  rows)  . 

335 

228 

381i/4 

9441/4 

Test  at  Hartsville,  S.  C.: 

Heavy  (14  rows)  

1583/4 

793 

212'/8 

1164^/8 

Unseparated  (14  rows)  .  . 

139 

715»/4 

221  1/8 

10757/8 

125.  Quantity  of  seed.  —  It  is  customary  to  plant 
12  to  15  times  the  quantity  of  seed  necessary  to  give  the 
desired  number  of  plants  to  the  acre.  A  bushel  of  cotton 
seed  contains  between  120,000  and  150,000  seed.  It  is 
seldom  that  less  than  a  bushel  and  often  as  much  as  a 
bushel  and  a  half  of  seed  is  planted  per  acre.  Planting 
in  rows  four  feet  apart  and  one  foot  in  the  drill  requires, 
with  a  perfect  stand,  only  10,890  plants  to  the  acre.  A 
spacing  of  18  inches  in  the  drill  requires  7,260,  and  24- 
inch  spacing  requires  5,445  plants  to  the  acre. 

With  a  good  quality  of  seed  and  a  planter  that  places 
the  seed  in  a  narrow  drill,  the  quantity  of  seed  required 


110        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

to  the  acre  can  be  greatly  reduced.  However,  under  the 
best  conditions  it  is  seldom  wise  to  plant  less  than  one- 
half  bushel  of  seed  to  the  acre. 

126.  Methods  of  planting.  —  Cotton  is  in  nearly  all 
cases  drilled  and  afterwards  chopped  to  a  stand.     The 
single-row  planter  is  most  commonly  used,  which  opens 
the  furrow  and  drops  and  covers  the  seed  at  one  trip.    With 
the  idea  of  decreasing  the  expense  of  chopping,  planters 
have  been  put  on  the  market  which  drop  the  seed  at  regu- 
lar intervals  rather  than  in  a  continuous  drill  (Fig.  17). 
The  satisfactory  use  of  these  planters  generally  requires 
that  the  seed  be  treated  before  planting  with  a  paste  of 
some  kind  to  cause  the  "fuzz"  to  acjhere  to  the  seed.    To 
do  this  the  method  referred  to  in  paragraph  124  is  rec- 
ommended.    The  use  of  this  method  reduces  the  amount 
of  seed  necessary  to  plant  an  acre. 

Cotton  seed  should  be  covered  very  shallow,  especially 
if  planted  early.  Deeper  planting  may  be  practiced  later 
in  the  season  when  the  soil  is  warm  and  there  is  not  so 
much  danger  of  heavy  rains.  Best  results  are  secured  by 
barely  covering  very  early-planted  seed,  but  when  planted 
late  it  is  well  to  put  the  seed  in  moist  soil,  provided  this 
does  not  necessitate  planting  more  than  two  and  one-half 
inches  deep. 

CULTIVATION 

127.  Objects  of  interculture.  —  Farmers   often   pos- 
sess a  confused  idea  as  to  the  objects  of  interculture. 
Many  have  the  very  erroneous  idea  that  the  primary 
object  sought  is  the  deep  stirring  of  the  soil,  and  following 
out  this  idea,  they  attempt  to  accomplish,  after  the  crop 
is  up  and  growing,  what  should  have  been  accomplished 
in  the  early  preparation  of  the  seed-bed. 


TILLAGE  FOR  COTTON 


111 


The  primary  objects  of  interculture  are  (1)  to  conserve 
moisture,  (2)  to  keep  down  weeds,  and  (3)  to  permit  the 


FIG.  17.  —  Interior  view  of  a  one-seed  drop  cotton 
planter. 

air  to  freely  enter  the  soil.  If  the  seed-bed  has  been 
properly  prepared,  deep  tillage  is  not  necessary  in  order 
to  secure  these  objects.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  usually 
very  injurious. 


112        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

128.  Broadcast    tillage    for    cotton.  —  Farmers    are 
rapidly  learning  to  appreciate  the   value  of  broadcast 
tillage  for  cotton.    This  operation  is  performed  by  running 
a  weeder  or  light  spike-tooth  section-harrow  across  the 
rows,  (1)  after  the  crop  is  planted  but  before  the  plants 
are  up,  and  (2)  after  the  plants  are  up  and  well  established 
but  before  chopping.     If  the  section-harrow  is  used  for 
this  purpose,  it  should  be  adjusted  so  that  the  spikes  slant 
slightly  backward,   especially  for  the  cultivation  given 
after  the  plants  are  up. 

There  are  three  important  advantages  in  broadcast 
tillage:  (1)  It  thoroughly  breaks  the  crust  over  the  entire 
surface  of  the  soil,  saving  moisture,  destroying  weeds  in 
their  first  stages  of  growth,  and  enabling  the  young  cotton 
plants  to  come  through  the  soil  easily.  (2)  It  economizes 
labor  as  by  this  method  ten  or  more  acres  can  be  gone 
over  in  a  day.  In  fact,  the  broadcast  tillage  is,  by  far, 
the  most  economical  cultivation  that  the  crop  receives. 
(3)  It  permits  the  operation  of  chopping  to  be  effected 
with  less  labor.  Broadcast  tillage  is  not  practical  if  a  poor 
stand  has  been  secured  or  if  the  land  is  foul  with  litter. 

129.  Tillage  by  separate  rows.  —  Before  the  farmer 
begins  the  cultivation  of  his  cotton,  he  should  be  familiar 
with  the  following  important  facts:  (1)  Practically  all  of 
the  food  that  the  plant  takes  up  from  the  soil  is  secured 
from  that  portion  of  the  soil  that  is  stirred  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  seed-bed.     (2)  The  plant  derives  little  or  no 
food  from  that  portion  of  the  seed-bed  that  is  kept  stirred 
as  a  result  of,tilling  the  crop. 

Knowing  the  above  facts,  the  farmer  can  readily  appre^ 
ciate  the  injurious  effects  of  deep  cultivation,  especially 
after  the  plants  have  become  somewhat  advanced  in  their 
growth.  It  results  in  limiting  the  feeding  roots  to  a  small 


TILLAGE  FOR  COTTON  113 

portion  of  soil,  and  renders  useless  a  large  amount  of 
available  food  that  with  shallow  cultivation  would  be  used 
by  the  plants. 

130.  The  first  cultivation.  —  This  must  be  of  such  a 
nature  as  to  stir  the  soil  close  to  the  plants  without  cover- 
ing them.    Either  double  cultivators  with  fenders  attached 
or  single  cultivators  made  similar  to  a  side  harrow  may 
be  satisfactorily  used.    The  very  crude  practice  of  barring 
off  the  row  with  a  turning  plow  should  be  avoided  except 
in  extreme  cases.     When  cotton  is  thus  barred,  particu- 
larly if  it  is  closely  done,  too  much  soil  is  taken  away, 
the  plants  fall  down  after  the  hoes  and  the  growth  is 
checked.     If  no  other  damage  is  done,  the  crop  is  made 
several  days  late.    The  use  of  the  tui;n-plow  in  barring  off 
cotton  is  justified  only  when  the  grass  has  become  so  large 
as  a  result  of  protracted  rains  that  its  destruction  by  the 
use  of  more  desirable  types  of  cultivators  is  impossible. 
Many  farmers,  in  using  the  two-horse  or  one-horse  cultiva- 
tors, equip  them  with  narrow  sweeps  or  scrapes  rather 
than  with  small  points.    The  results  secured  are  quite  sat- 
isfactory, especially  if  the  sweeps  or  scrapes  are  equipped 
with  a  fender. 

131.  Chopping.  —  This  operation  follows  immediately 
after  the  first  cultivation  by  separate  rows.    The  chopping 
or  thinning  is  done  with  a  hoe.    One  or  two  plants  are  left 
at  the  desired  distance  apart.    Ultimately  only  one  plant 
should  be  left  in  a  hill.     The  ideal  practice  is  to  leave, 
at  the  time  of  chopping,  only  one  plant  at  the  desired  dis- 
tance apart  unless  chopping  is  done  when  the  plants  are 
very  small,  or  when  there  is  danger  that  disease  or  un- 
favorable weather  will  destroy  them. 

132.  The  second  cultivation*.  —  The  first  cultivation 
and  subsequent  chopping  result  in  removing  considerable 


*114        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

soil  from  the  row  of  plants.  Therefore,  an  important  ob- 
ject in  the  second  cultivation  should  be  to  return  this 
soil  to  the  plants.  To  accomplish  this  purpose,  rather 
wide  sweeps  or  scrapes  are  commonly  used  on  either  one- 
horse  or  two-horse  cultivators.  These  sweeps  or  scrapes 
must  be  set  sloping  enough  so  that  most  of  the  soil  stirred 
will  fall  back  of  them  rather  than  be  pushed  to  the  sides, 
in  which  case  rather  hard  strips  are  left  with  no  mulch  to 
prevent  evaporation.  Any  method  of  cultivation  that 
does  not  leave  the  entire  middle  covered  with  a  fine  mulch 
is  not  satisfactory.  The  use  of  such  implements  as  leave 
a  narrow,  uncultivated  strip  or  "balk"  midway  between 
the  rows  of  cotton  should  be  abandoned. 

133.  Subsequent  culture.  —  The  third  and  subsequent 
cultivations  for  cotton  should  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to 
keep  the  grass  subdued  and  the  soil  well  stirred  without 
leaving  the  middles  ridged  or  furrowed.  The  cultivation 
gets  shallower  as  the  roots  get  out  in  the  row.  Small 
buzzard  wing  sweeps  on  double  cultivators  are  widely 
used  for  these  later  cultivations.  After  the  cotton  gets 
too  large  to  plow  with  the  double  cultivators,  single 
cultivators  are  used.  On  droughty  soils  cultivation 
should  be  continued  until  the  cotton  is  locked  in  the  rows. 
On  very  rich  soils  that  have  a  tendency  to  produce  too 
large  a  stalk,,  late  cultivation  is  not  advisable. 

"  134.  Frequency  of  tillage.  —  No  definite  rules  can 
be  adhered  to  as  to  the  frequency  of  cultivating  cotton. 
The  aim  should  be  to  keep  the  soil  in  such  a  condition  at 
all  times  as  will  provide  the  objects  of  cultivation  pre- 
viously stated  in  this  chapter.  To  do  this  will  necessitate 
stirring  the  soil  as  soon  after  rains  as  possible.  For  best 
results,  at  least  five  cultivations  are  usually  necessary. 
On  droughty  soils  six  or  seven  cultivations  are  advisable. 


TILLAGE  FOR  COTTON  115 

135.  The  value  of  late  tillage.  —  The  most  critical 
part  of  the  cultivation  of  cotton  is  the  late  tillage.    While 
there  is  little  doubt  that  most  farmers  "lay  by"  cotton 
too  early,  much  cotton  is  injured  every  year  by  late  culti- 
vation injudiciously  performed.    Failure  to  practice  very 
shallow  cultivation  at  this  advanced  stage  of  the  crop  has 
prejudiced  many  farmers  against  this  valuable  practice. 
After  the  bolls  begin  to  form  and  the  vegetation  becomes 
heavy,  the  plants  require  large  quantities  of  water.  If 
late  cultivation  is  not  practiced,  the  soil  bakes  and  the 
moisture  evaporates.    But  if  this  late  tillage  is  not  very 
shallow  an  enormous  quantity  of  feeding  roots  are  de- 
stroyed.   With  the  heavy  top  and  the  large  crop  of  bolls 
to  support,  the  reduced  root  system  cannot  supply  the 
necessary  food  and  moisture.    To  reduce  proportionately 
its  need  for  these  materials,  the  plant  sheds  its  forms 
and  young  bolls.    On  the  other  hand,  much  of  the  August 
shedding  can  be  prevented  by  late,  shallow  cultivation. 

136.  Distance  between  rows.  —  It  is  impossible  to 
say  just  what  the-  distance  should  be  between  rows  of 
cotton  because  of  the  difference  in  the  fertility  of  soils. 
On  rich  soils  well  supplied  with  moisture  the  plants  grow 
large,  requiring  more  space  than  on  poor  soils,  because  of 
the  outward  growth  of  the  long  branches.     Therefore, 
the  richer  the  soil,  the  greater  the  distance  between  rows 
should  be.    With  corn  the  matter  of  spacing  is  just  the 
opposite. 

On  poor  upland  soils  the  usual  distance  between  cotton 
rows  is  3*/£  feet.  A  less  distance  than  this  is  seldom 
advisable  under  any  conditions.  On  good  upland  soil 
capable  of  producing  from  one-half  to  two-thirds  of  a 
bale  to  the  acre,  the  rows  should  be  at  least  4  feet 
apart.  On  rich  bottom  land  or  alluvial  soils  a  distance 


116        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

of  5  feet  or  in  some  cases  6  feet  between  rows  is  advisable. 
Tests  conducted  by  the  Mississippi  Experiment  Station 
on  the  rich  delta  soils  averaging  one  bale  per  acre  indicate 
that  best  results  are  obtained  when  the  cotton  is  grown 
in  four  foot  rows  with  the  plants  2}/£  feet  apart  in  the  row, 
or  10  square  feet  of  surface  for  each  plant. 

137.  Distance  between  plants  in  the  row.  —  The 
general  tendency  of  cotton-farmers  is  to  unduly  crowd 
the  plants  in  the  row.  The  same  conditions  govern  the 
spacing  of  plants  in  the  row  as  determine  the  distance 
between  rows.  When  cotton  is  planted  in  3J/£  foot  rows 
on  poor  upland  soils,  the  distance  between  plants  in 
the  row  should  not  be  less  than  12  inches.  As  the  fer- 
tility of  the  soil  increases,  the  distance  between  plants 
should  also  increase.  On  very  productive  alluvial  soils 
a  spacing  of  24  or  30  inches  is  advisable.  On  soils  of 
medium  productiveness  a  spacing  of  18  or  20  inches  be- 
tween plants  usually  gives  best  results.  Experience  and 
experiments  have  demonstrated  the  fact  that  when  the 
plants  are  unduly  crowded,  the  number  of  bolls  to  a  plant 
is  greatly  decreased. 


CHAPTER  X 
HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING  COTTON 

HARVESTING  and  preparing  cotton  for  the  market 
involve  at  least  four  important  operations.  These  are 
(1)  picking,  (2)  ginning,  (3)  baling,  and  (4)  compressing 
into  very  compact  bales  for  long  distance  shipping.  A 
brief  discussion  of  each  of  these  operations  and  also  a 
discussion  of  commercial  grades  follow. 

138.  Picking.  —  Practically  all  of  the  cotton  crop  is 
still  picked  by  hand.    This  laborious  operation  limits  the 
acreage  that  can  be  produced  and  handled  by  a  unit  of 
labor  and  adds  greatly  to  the  cost  of  cotton  production. 
Picking  begins  in  August  and  continues  until  the  middle  of 
December.    The  greater  part  of  the  crop  is  picked  in  Sep- 
tember, October,  and  November.   As  a  usual  thing  the  best 
quality  of  lint  is  secured  at  the  first  and  second  pickings. 

An  amount  varying  from  175  to  225  pounds  of  seed 
cotton  represents  an  average  day's  work  for  an  experi- 
enced picker.  The  price  paid  for  picking  varies  from 
40  cents  to  80  cents  a  100  pounds,  depending  on  labor 
conditions.  In  sections  where  labor  is  exceptionally  scarce, 
even  more  than  80  cents  a  100  pounds  is  paid.  In  picking 
cotton  one  should  be  careful  to  see  that  no  trash  is  in- 
cluded. Diseased  locks  should  not  be  picked,  and  stained 
or  discolored  locks  should  not  be  mixed  with  the  general 
lot;  otherwise  the  selling  price  will  be  reduced. 

139.  Cotton-picking  machines.  —  Many  attempts  have 
been   made  to   invent  mechanical   cotton-pickers.     Pre- 
117 


118         FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

liminary  trials  with  some  of  these  pickers  have  given 
promising  results.  The  chief  difficulty  is  to  perfect  a 
machine  that  will  pick  thoroughly  and  rapidly  the  seed 
cotton  without  including  trash  and  without  injuring  the 
unopen  bolls.  Several  machines  invented  within  very 
recent  years  have  given  considerable  promise  of  doing 
this.  It  seems  certain  that  in  time  a  large  percentage  of 
the  cotton  crop  will  be  harvested  by  mechanical  cotton- 
pickers. 

"Some  of  these  machines  operate  on  the  suction  prin- 
ciple :  the  open  end  of  a  hose  pipe  is  directed  by  the  human 
hand  close  to  each  open  boll,  when  the  suction  created 
by  a  revolving  fan  on  the  machine  draws  the  seed  cotton 
through  a  tube  and  into  a  hopper. 

"Other  mechanical  pickers  entangle  the  seed  cotton 
by  means  of  innumerable,  sharp,  tack-like  points  im- 
bedded in  narrow  revolving  belts,  which  are  directed 
by  human  hands  into  contact  with  the  open  boll;  the 
lint  is  instantly  entangled  and  borne  along  the  re- 
volving belt  to  the  hopper,  where  it  is  removed  by 
brushes."  1 

140.  Ginning.  —  After  the  seed  cotton  is  harvested 
it  is  immediately  hauled  to  the  gin  where  the  lint  is  re- 
moved from  the  seed.     The  ginning  outfit  includes  an 
elevator  for  sucking  the  cotton  through  a  cleaner  which 
removes  trash   and  dirt.    Damp  cotton   should   be  al- 
lowed to   dry  before  being   ginned;   otherwise  the  gin 
will   break   a  large  percentage   of  the  fibers.     Ginning 
usually  costs  the  grower  a  dollar  to  a  dollar  and  a  half 
per  bale. 

141.  Types  of  cotton  gins.  —  There  are  two  principal 
types  of  cotton  gins,  the  saw  gin  and  the  roller  gin.    The 

1  Duggar,  J.  F.,  " Southern  Field  Crops,"  p.  365. 


HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING  COTTON      119 

principles  upon  which  these  two  types  operate  are  entirely 
different. 

The  saw  gin,  invented  in  1792  by  Eli  Whitney,  an  Amer- 
ican, is  used  to  gin  short  staple  cotton' and  is  the  type 
commonly  used  in  the  cotton-belt,  except  in  the  districts 
growing  Sea  Island  cotton.  The  important  features  of 
its  construction  may  be  described  as  a  series  of  circular 
saws  having  fine  teeth,  which  revolve  between  the  in- 
terstices of  an  iron  bed  upon  which  the  seed  cotton  is 
placed.  The  teeth  of  the  saws  catch  the  lint  and  pull 
it  off  the  seeds.  A  circular  brush,  which  makes  four  or 
five  times  as  many  revolutions  per  minute  as  the  saws  do, 
removes  the  detached  lint  from  the  saws.  The  brush 
creates  sufficient  draught  to  carry  the  lint  to  a  condenser 
where  it  is  pressed  into  layers.  Modern  gins  consist  of 
4  to  8  gin  stands.  The  gin  stands  most  frequently  used 
have  60  to  80  saws,  which  are  either  10  or  12  inches  in 
diameter.  These  saws  make  300  to  400  revolutions  a 
minute.  A  suitable  production  for  a  60-saw  gin  stand  is 
one  bale  of  500  pounds  an  hour,  or  5  pounds  to  a  saw. 
Approximately  one-third  of  the  weight  of  seed  cotton  is 
lint,  the  remaining  two-thirds  being  seed  to  which  the 
linters  are  attached.  Varieties  differ  considerably  as  to 
the  amount  of  lint  they  produce  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  seed. 

The  roller  gin  is  used  in  ginning  Sea  Island  cotton,  the 
naked  seeds  of  which  are  easily  separated  by  rollers  from 
the  lint.  This  type  is  preferable  for  ginning  all  long-staple 
cottons,  as  in  such  cases,  the  saw  gin  breaks  a  large  per- 
centage of  the  fibers.  It  is  also  used  in  ginning  the  short 
staple  cottons  of  India  and  is  the  common  type  used 
throughout  Egypt  where  long-staple  cottons  are  largely 
grown.  There  are  at  least  two  distinct  types  of  con- 


120        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

struction  of  roller  gins  in  general  use,  but  both  of  them 
depend  upon  the  same  principle  for  the  removal  of  the 
fiber  from  the  seed.  In  each  type  the  seed  cotton  is 
brought  in  contact  with  a  revolving  roller,  the  surface  of 
which  is  covered  with  leather,  preferably  walrus  hide, 
which  has  a  roughened  surface.  A  metal  plate  or  knife  ex- 
tends across  the  machine  tangentially  to  the  roller  and 
very  close  to  it.  The  fine  fibers  adhere  to  the  leather  cover- 
ing of  the  roller  and  are  drawn  between  it  and  the  knife  un- 
til the  seed  is  pulled  against  the  edge,  and  the  fibers  are 
severed.  The  larger  types  of  roller  gins  will  turn  out  800 
to  1000  pounds  of  lint  to  a  gin  stand  in  a  day  of  10 
hours. 

142.  Baling.  —  The  cotton  lint  leaves  the  gin  in  a 
very  loose  condition  and  has  to  be  compressed  into  bales 
for  convenience  of  transport.  This  is  done  by  placing 
it  in  .a  baling  press  with  an  outside  wrapper  of  coarse 
burlap,  in  which  it  is  compressed  into  comparatively  small 
compass  and  held  by  iron  ties. 

Bales  from  different  countries  vary  greatly  in  size, 
weight,  and  appearance.  The  approximate  weights  of 
bales  as  put  on  the  market  from  different  countries  are 
as  follows : 

United  States 500  pounds 

India 400  pounds 

Egypt 700  pounds 

Peru .  .  . • 200  pounds 

Brazil 200  to  300  pounds. 

American  cotton  bales  are  said  to  arrive  at  foreign  markets 
in  poorer  condition  than  those  from  any  other  country. 
This  is  due  largely  to  the  fact  that  the  bagging  used  for 
covering  the  American  bale  is  of  very  poor  quality  and 


HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING  COTTON      121 

insufficient  in  amount.  Where  the  bales  are  not  of  uni- 
form length  the  ends  of  the  long  bales  are  sometimes  taken 
off  in  loading  the  ships.  Such  bales  usually  arrive  at  their 
destination  in  bad  condition. 

The  round  bale,  which  has  been  prevented  from  coming 
into  general  use  by  the  opposition  of  owners  of  compresses, 
is  usually  much  better  protected.  Its  weight  is  approx- 
imately 250  pounds. 

143.  Care   of  baled   cotton. —  The  fact   that   baled 
cotton  does  not  absorb  water  readily  has  led  to  very  care- 
less methods  of  handling  it.    It  is  rather  common  for  both 
farmers  and  warehouse  men  to  leave  large  quantities  of 
baled  cotton  exposed  to  the  rain  for,  many  months  at  a 
time.    There  is  no  question  but  that  such  treatment  stains 
and  weakens  the  fibers,  especially  in  the  outer  portions 
of  the  bale,  and  thereby  decreases  the  selling  price.    Cotton 
bales  should  be  kept  at  all  times  under  shelter,  and,  if 
possible,  from  direct  contact  with  moist  soil. 

144.  Compressing.  —  The  bales  as  they  come  from 
the  gin  are  too  large  for  economical  shipment  either  by 
train  or  over  water.    For  this  reason,  powerful  steam  baling 
compresses  are  to  be  found  in  practically  every  inland  city 
and  seaport  in  the  cotton-belt.    These  compresses  greatly 
reduce  the  size  of  the  bales. 

In  some  cases  the  cotton  lint  as  it  comes  from  the  gin 
goes  immediately  into  these  powerful  compresses  where 
it  is  packed  into  bales  of  very  great  density. 

SELECTION   AND   CLASSIFICATION    OF    COMMERCIAL   GRADES 
OF   COTTON 

Cotton  is  bought  and  sold  in  accordance  with  a  system 
of  grading  that  has  been  agreed  on  by  all  of  the  leading 
cotton  markets  of  the  world.  For  correctly  distinguishing 


122        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

the  qualities  that  add  to,  or  detract  from  the  market  value 
of  cotton,  a  long  period  of  practice  in  cotton  classing  or 
judging  is  essential.  Most  cotton-growers  are  ignorant  as 
to  the  grade  of  lint  that  they  are  selling  and  are  thus  more 
or  less  at  the  mercy  of  the  cotton-buyer.  Courses  in  cotton 
classing  are  now  being  given  by  the  larger  number  of  the 
agricultural  colleges  in  the  cotton-belt. 

145.  Important  points  in  cotton  valuing.  —  The  points 
considered  in  valuing  cotton  are,  in  order  of  importance : 
(1)  grade,  (2)  staple,  (3)  color,  (4)  amount  of  sand,  (5) 
amount  of  dampness,   (6)   whether  the  cotton  is  even- 
running  or  not.    Of  these  six  points  grade  is,  by  far,  the 
most  important  and  will  be  considered  more  fully  than 
the  others. 

146.  Grade.  —  By  this  term  is  meant  the  appearance 
of  the  cotton,  primarily  as  regards  cleanliness,  although 
color  is  sometimes  considered  under  this  point.    Any  de- 
gree of  "off  color"  or  " tinges"  will  tend  to  lower  the 
grade. 

There  are  seven  full  grades  as  agreed  on  by  the  leading 
cotton  markets  of  the  world.  Classifying  cotton  into  these 
seven  full  grades,  however,  does  not  satisfy  the  require- 
ments of  the  cotton  merchant,  who  demands  a  much  finer 
gradation.  Consequently  each  grade  is  subdivided  into 
what  are  known  as  half  grades  and  quarter  grades,  which 
subdivision  gives  a  list  of  twenty-six  different  grades  of 
cotton.  The  names  of  the  grades  having  the  word  "  strict " 
are  really  half  grades,  while  those  having  the  words 
"barely"  and  "fully"  are  the  quarter  grades.  Market 
quotations  are  based  upon  the  grade  known  as  middling. 
Consequently  this  is  considered  to  be  the  basic  or  middle 
grade.  The  complete  list  of  grades  follows,  the  full  grades 
being  printed  in  bold-face  type: 


HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING  COTTON      123 


1. 


2. 


3. 


ABOVE  MIDDLING 
Fair 

Barely  fair 
Strict  middling  fair 
Fully  middling  fair 
Middling  fair 
Barely  middling  fair 
Strict  good  middling 
Fully  good  middling 
Good  middling 
Barely  good  middling 
Strict  middling 
Fully  middling 


BELOW  MIDDLING 
Barely  middling 
Strict  low  middling 
Fully  low  middling 

5.  Low  middling 
Barely  low  middling 
Strict  good  ordinary 

4.     Middling          Fully  good  ordinary 

6.  Good  ordinary 
Barely  good  ordinary 
Strict  ordinary 

7.  Ordinary 
Low  ordinary 
Inferior 

The  amount  and  size  of  the  trash  in  cotton  lint  deter- 
mine, to  a  great  extent,  its  grade.  Finely  divided  trash 
is  much  more  objectionable  than  large  leaves.  In  fact, 
very  little  deduction  is  made  for  a  small  amount  of  large 
trash. 

Grades  and  subdivisions  of  grades  above  strict  good 
middling  are  comparatively  rare.  The  bulk  of  the  white 
cotton  grown  in  an  average  season  in  the  United  States  is 
classed  as  either  good  middling,  middling,  or  low  middling. 
The  time  of  picking  is  important  in  determining  the  grade 
of  cotton.  The  high  grades  are  composed  largely  of  cotton 
from  the  first  picking.  This  is  usually  harvested  in  late 
summer,  before  unfavorable  weather  sets  in  and  con- 
sequently the  lint  is  cleaner  and  has  a  brighter  luster.  At 
this  time  the  leaves  are  still  green  and  therefore  trash  is 
less  abundant. 

The  medium  grades  come  largely  from  the  second  pick- 
ing. There  is  a  tendency  for  the  open  cotton  to  be  left 
on  the  plants  longer  and  heavy  dews  or  rains  affect  it 
adversely.  The  process  of  alternate  wetting  and  drying 
injures  somewhat  the  color  of  the  lint.  Leaves  are  de- 


124        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON  BELT 

caying  and  more  trash  is  included  than  at  the  first 
picking. 

The  low  grades  are  made  up  largely  of  cotton  that 
has  been  picked  after  killing  frosts.  At  this  time  the 
stalks  and  leaves  are  dead  and  much  trash  is  attached 
to  the  lint.  The  color  of  the  cotton  is  often  bad  owing 
to  the  prevalence  of  stained  locks,  and  the  repeated 
rains  serve  to  remove  that  brightness  and  luster  which  is 
so  desirable. 

The  following  table  shows  the  approximate  amount  of 
waste  occurring  in  the  various  grades  and  half  grades  from 
strict  good  middling  to  ordinary: 

Strict  good  middling 11 .50  per  cent 

Good  middling 12 .00  per  cent 

Strict  middling 12 . 50  per  cent 

Middling 13 .00  per  cent 

Strict  low  middling 13.75  per  cent 

Low  middling 14 .75  per  cent 

Strict  good  ordinary 16 .00  per  cent 

Good  ordinary 17 . 50  per  cent 

Ordinary 18 . 75  per  cent 

147.  Relative  values  of  different  grades.  —  The  dif- 
ference in  price  between  the  different  grades  of  cotton  will 
vary  in  accordance  with  (1)  the  quantity  of  dirt  and  trash 
that  go  to  waste  in  the  manufacturing  process,  and  (2)  the 
supply  and  demand.  In  an  unfavorable  season  resulting 
in  a  scarcity  of  the  grades  above  middling,  the  difference 
in  favor  of  the  upper  grades  will  be  greater  than  in  favor- 
able seasons  when  the  bulk  of  the  crop  is  of  good  quality. 
The  quotations  for  Low  Middling  and  Good  Middling 
at  various  markets  in  the  United  States  on  February  2, 
1914,  based  on  the  United  States  standard  of  classification 
are  shown  in  the  following  table: 


HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING  COTTON      125 

TABLE  8.  QUOTATIONS  BASED  ON  THE  UNITED  STATES  STANDARD 
AT  DIFFERENT  MARKETS  FOR  THE  SAME  GRADES  OF  SHORT 
STAPLE  COTTON,  FEBRUARY  2,  1914  l 


Low 
MIDDLING 

MIDDLING 

GOOD 
MIDDLING 

\  A 

New  Orleans 

cents 
12.06 

cents 
12.81 

cents 
13.69 

Galveston 

11  44 

12.87 

13.69 

Memphis  

12.63 

13.25 

13.75 

Mobile  
Charleston  
St  Louis 

11.56 
11.75 
12  25 

12.69 
12.75 
13.25 

13.19 
13.25 
13.88 

Little  Rock  

11.50 

12.50 

13.00 

148.  Staple.  —  In  the  judging  of  cotton  the  next  step 
after  establishing  the  grade  is  to  determine  the  staple, 
which  comprises  both  the  average  length  and  strength  of 
the  fibers.  The  length  of  the  fiber  is  considered  to  be  a  very 
important  "  spinning  quality,"  although  it  is  relatively 
unimportant  in  determining  the  grade.  It  does  influence 
the  price,  however.  The  expert  cotton  judge  often  tests 
both  the  length  and  strength  of  the  fiber  at  the  same  time 
by  simply  taking  a  tuft  and  giving  it  one  pull,  judging  it 
by  the  amount  of  "drag"  or  "cling"  that  must  be  over- 
come in  pulling  it  apart.  Sand  and  dirt  are  next  deter- 
mined, usually  by  holding  a  handful  of  lint  as  high  as  one's 
head  and  shaking  it  so  that  the  sand,  if  there  is  any,  can 
be  seen  to  fall  from  it. 

A  rich,  bright  creamy  color  of  the  lint  is  a  property  de- 
sired in  cotton,  especially  when  it  is  to  be  used  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  goods  that  are  to  be  sold  in  an  unbleached  or 


1  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  591,  p.  17. 


126        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

undyed  state.  Any  decided  "off  color"  that  would  be 
recognized  by  the  buyer  as  "spots,"  "tinges,"  or  "stains" 
will  greatly  reduce  the  price  of  cotton.  These  are  care- 
fully watched  for  by  the  cotton  judge. 


CHAPTER  XI 


SOME  IMPORTANT  INSECT  ENEMIES  OF 
COTTON 

THE  three  most  destructive  insect  enemies  of  cotton, 
considering  the  entire  cotton-belt,  are  the  Mexican  cotton 
boll-weevil,  the  cotton  boll-worm,  and  the  cotton  leaf- 
worm.  Other  insect  enemies  of  secondary  importance 
that  do  considerable  damage  to  the  cotton  crop,  are  the 
cotton  leaf-louse,  the  cotton  red-spider,  the  cowpea  pod- 
weevil,  and  cutworms. 

THE       MEXICAN       COTTON       BOLL-WEEVIL          (AnthonOMUS 

grandis  (Fig.  18.) 

It  is  thought  that  the  cotton  boll-weevil  is  native  to 
Mexico  or  Central  America,  all  evidence  pointing  to  the 
fact  that  since  prehistoric  times 
it  has  thrived  upon  the  peren- 
nial tree  cottons  of  those  re- 
gions. Its  history  in  the  cotton- 
belt  of  the  United  States  begins 
in  1892,  at  which  tune  it  crossed 
the  Rio  Grande  into  Texas  in 
the  vicinity  of  Brownsville.  In 
1894  this  pest  damaged  the  cot- 
ton crop  rather  severely  in  half 
a  dozen  counties  in  south- 
east Texas  and  during  the  ten  years  following  it  spread 
over  the  greater  portion  of  the  state.  The  boll-weevil 

127 


Fio.  18.  —  Adult  boll-weevil 
showing  characteristic 
teeth  on  front  legs  which 
serve  to  distinguish  this 
insect  from  other  weevils. 


128        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

entered  Louisiana  in  1904,  Mississippi  in  1907,  and  Ala- 
bama in  1910.  In  recent  years  it  has  spread  eastward 
much  more  rapidly  than  northward.  There  seems  to  be 
little  doubt  but  that  within  the  next  ten  or  fifteen  years 
it  will  spread  over  the  entire  cotton-belt  of  the  United 
States. 

149.  Life  history  and  habits.  —  There  are  four  stages 
in  the  life  history  of  the  boll-weevil,  —  the  egg,  the  larva 
or  grub,  the  pupa,  and  the  adult.  The  first  three  of  these 
four  stages  are  spent  within  the  cotton  square  or  young 
tender  boll.  By  means  of  the  mouth  parts,  which  are 
located  at  the  end  of  the  snout,  the  adult  weevil  eats  a 


FIG.  19.  —  Showing  variation  in  size  of  boll-weevils. 

tiny  hole  into  the  square,  in  which  an  egg  is  deposited. 
Within  three  or  four  days  the  egg  hatches  into  a  tiny  white 
larva  or  grub.  This  grub  feeds  upon  the  inner  tissues  of 
the  square,  or  the  young  boll  as  the  case  may  be,  becoming 
full  grown  within  six  to  twelve  days  after  hatching,  pro- 
vided weather  conditions  are  favorable.  It  is  during  the 
larva  stage  that  the  greatest  damage  is  done.  After  attain- 
ing its  normal  size  the  larva  passes  into  the  pupa  stage 
or  the  intermediate  stage  between  the  larva  and  the  adult. 
The  transformation  from  larva  to  adult  usually  requires 
from  three  to  five  days  after  which  time  the  adult  eats 
its  way  to  the  outside  of  the  square  or  boll.  The  color 
of  the  adult  weevil  depends  upon  its  age.  The  recently 


IMPORTANT  INSECT  ENEMIES  OF  COTTON    129 

emerged  individual  is  light  yellowish  in  color,  changing 
to  a  gray  or  nearly  black  shade  as  it  becomes  older.  It 
is  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  length,  including  the 
snout  which  is  about  one-half  the  length  of  the  body 
(Fig.  19).  The  breadth  of  the  weevil  is  about  one-third 
of  its  length. 

150.  Food  of  the  weevil.  —  So  far  as  is  known  at 
present,  the  cotton  boll-weevil  has  no  food  plant  other 
than  cotton.  It  has  been  erroneously  reported  as  feeding 
upon  peas  and  various  other  plants.  Such  reports  are  in 
all  probability  due  to  the  confusion  of  the  boll-weevil 
with  other  weevils  of  quite  similar  appearance.  The 
fact  that  the  boll-weevil  feeds  on  no  plant  other  than  cot- 
ton is  made  the  basis  of  important  measures  of  control. 

161.  Rate  of  increase.  —  The  time  required  for  a 
boll-weevil  to  develop  from  an  egg  to  an  adult  depends 
upon  weather  conditions,  especially  as  regards  tempera- 
ture. Under  average  conditions  from  two  to  three  weeks  are 
required.  The  first  eggs  are  laid  as  soon  as  the  first  squares 
appear  in  the  spring  and  their  rapid  multiplication  contin- 
ues until  checked  by  frost.  W.  D.  Hunter  of  the  Bureau 
of  Entomology,  Washington,  D.  C.,  states  that  "a  con- 
servative estimate  of  the  possible  progeny  of  a  single  pair 
of  weevils  during  a  season  beginning  on  June  20th,  and 
extending  to  November  4th  is  12,755,100."  That  this 
estimate  is  very  conservative  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
Hunter  allowed  for  only  four  generations  in  a  season,  and 
for  each  female's  laying  only  100  eggs.  Investigations 
seem  to  indicate  that  the  average  number  of  eggs  laid  by 
each  female  is  approximately  140. 

152.  Dissemination.  —  The  boll-weevil  moves  from 
one  locality  to  another  by  making  successive  short  flights. 
It  is  little  inclined  to  fly,  however,  except  during  the  period 


130        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

from  the  middle  of  August  to  the  end  of  the  season.  This 
is  spoken  of  as  the  "  dispersion  period."  At  this  time  there 
is  always  a  movement  from  fields  in  all  directions  probably 
in  search  of  hibernating  quarters.  It  was  at  first  thought 
that  this  tendency  of  the  weevils  to  fly  at  this  season  of 
the  year  was  due  to  a  scarcity  of  food.  Investigations 
have  shown,  however,  that  this  movement  is  due  to  a 
well-developed  instinct  on  the  part  of  the  weevils  for  ex- 
tending their  range  into  new  territory.  It  is  at  this  season 
of  the  year  that  the  weevils  make  their  first  appearance  in 
uninfested  territory.  When  aided  by  the  wind,  they  have 
been  known  to  travel  a  distance  of  forty  miles  in  a  very 
short  time. 

153.  Hibernation.  —  With  the  advent  of  cool  weather 
in  the  fall,  the  adult  weevils  begin  to  look  for  hibernating 
quarters.    They  fly  in  all  directions  and  finally  take  refuge 
in  any  place  that  will  afford  some  protection.    They  may 
pass  the  winter  in  woods,  hedges,  corn  fields,  farm  build- 
ings, hay  stacks,  Spanish  moss,  under  grass  and  weeds  or 
other  trash,  or  in  dead  cotton  burrs.    During  the  hiber- 
nating period  the  weevils  take  no  food,  remaining  practi- 
cally dormant.     Recent  investigations  have  shown  that 
in  ordinary  winters  less  than  three  per  cent  of  the  weevils 
that  go  into  hibernating  quarters  in  the  fall  live  through 

^he  winter.  On  the  appearance  of  warm  weather  in  the 
spring,  those  weevils  that  have  survived  the  winter  emerge 
from  their  winter  quarters  and  fly  in  search  of  the  nearby 
cotton  fields. 

154.  Damage.  —  It  is  in  the  larva  stage  that  the  boll- 
weevil  does  its  greatest  damage.    After  the  egg  has  been 
deposited  in  the  cotton  square,  the  developing  larva  pre- 
vents  the   further   development   of   the   square.     Even 
relatively  large  bolls  that  have  been  punctured  either 


IMPORTANT  INSECT  ENEMIES  OF  COTTON    131 

make  no  further  growth  or  open  only  one  or  two  of  their 
locks.  A  fair  estimate  of  the  damage  inflicted  upon  the 
cotton  crop  by  the  boll-weevil  is  hard  to  make  owing  to 
the  fact  that  it  varies  greatly  from  year  to  year.  The 
injury  is  much  greater  in  wet  than  in  dry  seasons.  The 
damage  is  less  in  prairie  regions  where  a  minimum  amount 
of  protection  is  afforded  the  hibernating  weevils  during 
the  winter  months.  Investigations  by  the  Bureau  of  En- 
tomology, Washington,  D.  C.,  and  by  E.  D.  Sanderson, 
formely  State  Entomologist  of  Texas,  indicate  that  dur- 
ing the  period  from  1902  to  1911  the  farmers  of  Texas, 
without  considering  the  value  of  the  seed,  sustained  an  an- 
nual loss  of  $2.70  an  acre,  due  to  the  ravages  of  the  weevil. 
It  is  assumed  that  the  average  area  planted  in  cotton  in 
Texas  during  this  period  was  10,000,000  acres,  in  which 
case  the  annual  loss  for  the  state  for  this  period  was  ap- 
proximately $27,000,000.  Hunter  states  that  "  a  conserva- 
tive estimate  shows  that  since  the  weevil  has  infested  this 
country  it  has  caused  a  loss  of  2,550,000  bales  of  cotton 
at  a  value  of  about  $125,000,000."  This  statement  em- 
braces the  period  from  1892  to  1911. 

155.  Means    of    control.  —  No    entirely    successful 
means  of  fighting  the  cotton  boll-weevil  has,  as  yet,  been 
devised.     Years  of  experience,   observation  and  study, 
especially  as  regards  the  life  history  and  habits  of  this 
insect  have  brought  to  light  some  very  effective  means  of 
reducing  the  injury  which  it  inflicts.    The  more  important 
of  these  are  briefly  outlined  below. 

156.  Destroy  cotton  stalks  early  in  fall.  —  Those  who 
have  given  most  study  to  the  boll-weevil  problem  agree 
that  the  most  important  step  in  reducing  the  damage 
from  this  insect  is  the  early  destruction  of  the  cotton 
stalks.    There  are  two  principal  reasons  why  this  practice 


132        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

is  so  effective.  (1)  It  results  in  the  immediate  destruction 
of  many  of  the  weevils.  (2)  It  cuts  off  the  food  supply 
of  the  weevils  which  survive  this  operation.  As  a  result 
of  this  scarcity  of  food,  a  large  percentage  of  the  weevils 
starve  before  the  period  of  hibernation  arrives,  and  those 
that  go  into  winter  quarters  are  so  weakened  as  to  greatly 
reduce  the  chances  of  surviving  the  winter.  In  sections 
where  the  weevils  are  very  numerous,  there  is  little  hope 
of  securing  any  cotton  from  the  late  crop  of  squares. 
Hence  the  crop  from  the  relatively  early  maturing  bolls 
should  be  picked  as  early  as  possible  and  the  stalks  de- 
stroyed, certainly  not  later  than  November  1st  in  most 
sections  and  earlier  if  possible. 

There  are  three  methods  of  destroying  the  stalks:  (1) 
by  up-rooting  and  burning;  (2)  by  cutting  and  plowing 
under;  (3)  by  pasturing. 

Plowing  the  stalks  up,  raking  them  into  windrows,  and 
burning  as  soon  as  they  are  sufficiently  dry  is  the  most 
effective  method.  It  has  the  objection,  however,  of  im- 
poverishing the  soil  of  its  organic  matter.  This  objection 
can  be  overcome  by  a  rational  system  of  cropping,  in  which 
green-manure  crops  are  included. 

In  sections  where  the  loss  of  the  organic  matter  is  es- 
pecially serious,  the  farmer  is  advised  to  cut  the  stalks 
with  a  stalk  cutter  as  early  as  possible  and  follow  immedi- 
ately with  a  plow  that  will  bury  them  deeply.  Pasturing 
the  stalks  is  not  as  satisfactory  as  either  of  the  above 
methods  and  it  is  advisable  only  when  the  other  methods 
cannot  be  employed. 

157.  Destroy  weevils  in  hibernating  places.  —  As 
many  weevils  live  over  winter  in  trash  along  turnrows, 
in  hedges  and  fence  corners,  it  is  especially  advisable 
that  all  rubbish  and  trash  around  or  near  the  cotton  fields 


IMPORTANT  INSECT  ENEMIES  OF  COTTON    133 

be  collected  and  burned.  It  must  be  remembered  that 
of  the  thousands  of  weevils  that  fly  out  of  the  cotton  fields 
for  hibernation,  many  are  still  within  reach  of  the  farmer. 

158.  Make  provision  for  an  early  crop.  —  As  com- 
paratively few  boll-weevils  survive  the  winter,  the  farmer 
should  strive  in  every  way  possible  to  induce  his  cotton 
to  set  and  develop  a  large  number  of  bolls  early  in  the 
season,   before  the  weevils  have  multiplied  sufficiently 
to  do  much  damage.    The  important  means  of  securing 
an  early  crop  are  given:   (1)  A  well-drained  soil.     (2) 
Early  and  thorough  preparation  of  the  seed-bed.     (3) 
The  use  of  such  varieties  as  naturally  set  and  develop  a 
large  percentage  of  their  bolls  early.     (4)  The  liberal  use 
of  commercial  fertilizers  where  necessary  to  insure  a  prop- 
erly balanced  supply  of  food  to  the  plants.    A  deficiency 
of  either  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  or  potash  will  delay 
maturity.     (5)  Shallow  and  frequent  cultivation. 

159.  Proper    spacing    of    plants.  —  The    boll-weevil 
has  natural  enemies  such  as  heat  and  parasites.     The 
wide  spacing  of  the  plants  augments  the  action  of  these 
natural  enemies.    The  hot  summer's  heat  not  only  checks 
the  rate  at  which  the  weevils  multiply,  but  greatly  in- 
creases their  mortality,  especially  during  the  larva  stage. 
The  farmer  can  take  advantage  of  this  by  giving  an  abun- 
dance of  space  between  the  cotton  rows  and  between  the 
plants  in  the  row.    Thick  spacing  of  the  cotton  plants,  per- 
mitting the  limbs  to  overlap  freely,  produces  ideal  condi- 
tions for  the  development  of  the  weevil.  On  land  of  average 
productiveness  where  the  weevils  are  abundant  the  rows 
should  be  five  feet  apart.    This  admits  the  sun  readily  to 
the  infected  squares. 

Investigations  have  shown  that  the  mortality  of  the 
larvae  is  less  in  the  infested  squares  that  drop  and  remain 


134         FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

under  the  shade  of  the  branches  than  in  those  squares 
that  are  brought  to  the  middles  between  the  rows.  As  a 
result  of  this  discovery,  W.  E.  Hinds  has  devised  a  chain 
cultivator  which  brings  the  infested  squares  out  of  the 
shade  of  the  plants,  leaving  them  exposed  to  the  sun  mid- 
way between  the  rows. 

In  humid  regions,  provided  labor  is  cheap,  it  is  rec- 
ommended that  the  first-appearing  weevils  and  first- 
infested  squares  be  picked  from  the  plants.  The  squares 
should  not  be  destroyed  but  should  be  placed  in  screened 
cages,  which  will  prevent  the  escape  of  the  weevils  but 
will  permit  the  parasitic  enemies  of  the  weevils  to  escape 
and  continue  in  the  destruction  of  more  weevils.  All 
methods  of  poisoning  the  weevils  that  have  been  so  far 
tried  have  given  disappointing  results. 

THE  COTTON  BOLL-WORM  (Heliothis  obsoleto) 

Next  to  the  cotton  boll-weevil,  the  cotton  boll-worm  is 
probably  the  most  destructive  insect  enemy  of  the  cotton 
plant. 

160.  Description.  —  When  full  grown  the  cotton  boll- 
worm  is  from  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length. 
The  different  individuals  vary  as  regards  their  color  and 
markings,  almost  every  gradation  occurring  from  a  pale 
green  through  a  pinkish  or  brown  to  almost  black.    When 
first  hatched  they  are  very  small  and  often  go  unnoticed 
until  their  injury  becomes  rather  severe.    They  are  found 
on  cotton  from  the  time  the  squares  are  formed  but  their 
principal  injury  is  noticeable  late  in  the  summer  or  fall 
after  the  bolls  have  grown  to  normal  size. 

161.  Life  history.  —  As  in  the  case  of  the  cotton  boll- 
weevil,  the  life  cycle  of  the  cotton  boll-worm  comprises 
four  distinct  stages  —  the  egg,  the  larva,  pupa,  and  adult. 


IMPORTANT  INSECT  ENEMIES  OF  COTTON    135 

The  eggs  are  deposited  on  growing  corn,  cotton,  tomatoes, 
and  sometimes  on  tobacco.  Fresh  corn  silks  are  preferred 
by  the  adults  as  a  place  for  depositing  eggs  to  all  other 
objects. 

The  eggs  hatch  into  small  dark-colored  caterpillars, 
or  larvae,  within  from  three  to  five  days  after  being  depos- 
ited. This  is  the  destructive  stage  of  the  insect  and  for 
this  reason  is  the  one  most  generally  noticed.  When  the 
larvae  have  completed  their  growth,  which  usually  requires 
about  18  days,  they  crawl  or  drop  to  the  ground,  select 
a  suitable  spot  and  burrow  from  2  to  5  inches  into  the  soil. 
In  their  underground  cell  they  go  into  the  pupal  or  resting 
stage.  In  the  summer  months  this  stage  lasts  only  12  or 
15  days.  The  larvae  that  enter  the  soil  late  in  the  fall 
pass  the  winter  in  the  pupal  stage.  At  the  end  of  this 
stage  the  adult  insects  emerge. 

The  adult  is  a  brownish  yellow  moth,  measuring  about 
an  inch  and  a  half  from  tip  to  tip  of  the  expanded  wings. 
These  moths  usually  fly  at  dusk  and  after  dark,  feeding 
upon  the  nectar  of  flowers. 

162.  Food  plants.  —  The  cotton  boll-worm  is  known 
to  feed  upon  a  large  number  of  different  plants.     Its 
principal  food  plants  are  cotton,  corn,  tomatoes,  tobacco 
and  many  garden  crops.    Cora  seems  to  be  the  preferred 
food  of  the  boll-worm.    It  feeds  upon  the  succulent  corn 
kernels  and  is  often  called  the  "  corn-ear-worm."    When 
the  kernels  have  become  hardened  it  turns  to  cotton  and 
other  crops. 

163.  Damage.  —  The  young  caterpillars,   when  first 
hatched,  feed  upon  the  leaves  and  tender  parts  of  the  cot- 
ton plant  close  to  where  the  eggs  were  laid.    Later  they 
attack  the  bolls  or  bore  into  the  oud.    Sometimes  the  larva 
will  eat  the  entire  contents  of  a  boll  before  it  leaves  it. 


136        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

In  other  cases  it  will  eat  its  way  through  the  boll  and  im- 
mediately attack  another.  In  this  way  one  boll-worm 
often  destroys  a  number  of  bolls. 

164.  Means  of  control.  —  As  previously  stated,  the 
cotton  boll-worm  prefers  corn  to  cotton  as  a  food  plant. 
For  this  reason  the  cotton  fields  are  invaded  only  after 
the  corn  has  become  sufficiently  mature  to  render  it  an 
unsuitable  food  plant.  This  usually  occurs  about  August 
1st.  Any  cultural  method,  therefore,  which  tends  to 
hasten  the  maturity  of  the  cotton  crop  will  serve  to  evade 
injury  from  the  boll-worm.  The  most  important  cultural 
methods  for  accomplishing  this  result  are:  (1)  Early  plant- 
ing in^the  spring;  (2)  The  planting  of  early  maturing 
varieties;  (3)  The  proper  use  of  fertilizers;  (4)  Early,  fre- 
quent and  thorough  cultivation.  As  the  insect  passes 
the  winter  in  the  pupal  stage  in  the  soil,  thorough  fall 
or  winter  plowing  will  destroy  a  large  percentage  of  the 
pupae  by  exposing  them  to  weather  and  birds. 

Dusting  the  cotton  plants  with  powered  arsenate  of 
lead  in  the  latter  part  of  July  and  the  first  of  August,  at 
which  time  many  of  the  young  larvae  are  feeding  upon 
the  tender  parts  of  the  plants,  has  been  found  very  effect- 
ive. In  applying  the  poison  the  operator  rides  between 
the  rows  of  cotton,  carrying  in  front  of  him  a  pole  to  each 
end  of  which  is  fastened  a  bag  of  poison.  He  shakes  the 
dust  out  as  he  goes,  poisoning  from  15  to  20  acres  in  a 
day.  The  bags  are  made  of  closely  woven  flour-bag  cloth  or 
unbleached  sheeting.  This  method  is  effective  against  prac- 
tically all  insects  that  devour  the  foliage,  bolls,  or  squares. 

Corn  planted  sufficiently  late  in  the  season  to  reach 
the  silking  stage  during  the  latter  part  of  July  and  the 
first  of  August  serves  as  a  trap  crop  for  the  boll-worms, 
as  they  prefer  the  corn  to  cotton. 


IMPORTANT  INSECT  ENEMIES  OF  COTTON    137 

THE  COTTON  LEAF-WORM  (Alabama  argillacea) 

The  cotton  leaf-worm,  often  incorrectly  called  the 
"army  worm,"  feeds  upon  nothing  but  cotton  and  has 
repeatedly  done  extensive  damage  to  cotton  throughout 
the  south  for  more  than  a  century. 

165.  Life  history  and  habits.  —  The  life  cycle  of  the 
cotton  leaf-worm  can  be  more  easily  observed  than  that 
of  the  cotton  boll-worm,  for  the  reason  that  with  the  for- 
mer insect  all  four  stages  are  to  be  found  on  the  cotton 
plant,  and  frequently  at  the  same  time.  The  pale,  bluish 
green  eggs  are  deposited  on  the  underside  of  the  larger 
leaves  near  the  central  portion  of  the  cotton  plant.  Within 
two  to  five  days  after  being  deposited  they  hatch  into 
small,  pale,  yellowish  green  caterpillars.  Hinds  states 
that  when  full  grown  the  caterpillars  are  "rather  slender 
and  reach  a  length  of  one  and  one-half  inches.  The  cater- 
pillars of  the  earlier  generations  usually  show  much  less 
black  than  do  those  of  a  later  period  near  the  end  of  the 
season.  The  light  forms  are  quite  bright  yellowish  green 
in  body  color  with  three  narrow  white  stripes,  and  two 
rows  of  conspicuous  black  spots  each  set  with  a  black 
spine,  arranged  along  its  back." 

When  the  caterpillars  are  from  ten  to  fifteen  days  old, 
or  as  soon  as  growth  is  complete,  the  worms  cover  their 
bodies  by  drawing  together  parts  of  leaves,  spinning  a 
silken  cocoon  in  which  they  pupate  and  finally  transform 
to  the  adult  or  moth  stage.  This  process  is  commonly 
termed  "webbing  up."  The  adult  moths  or  "candle 
flies"  are  usually  of  an  olive  brown  color.  They  fly,  feed, 
and  lay  their  eggs  at  night.  Hinds  states  that  within  a 
week  or  ten  days  each  female  moth  "may  deposit  from 
400  to  600  eggs  and  then  dies."  There  are  usually  six 


138        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

or  more  generations  of  this  insect  during  a  growing  season, 
two  or  three  of  which  are  very  destructive. 

166.  Damage.  —  It    is    the    caterpillar    stage    which 
causes  the  damage  to  cotton.    While  very  young  these 
caterpillars  feed  only  on  the  underside  of  the  leaf  on  which 
they  hatch.    Later  they  move  toward  the  top  of  the  plant, 
eating  the  more  tender  foliage.    After  the  caterpillars  are 
five  to  seven  days  old  the  rate  of  destruction  is  very  rapid, 
depending  of  course  on  the  number  present.     Often  an 
entire  field  of  cotton  is  completely  stripped  of  its  leaves 
within  two  to  five  days.    This  pest  is  worse  in  unusually 
wet  seasons. 

167.  Means  of  control.  —  Owing  to  its  feeding  habits, 
the  cotton  leaf-worm  is  easily  controlled  by  dusting  an 
arsenical  poison  lightly  over  the  top  of  the  cotton  plants. 
The  same  method  is  employed  as  recommended  for  the 
cotton  boll- worm.     For  average  cotton,  three  pounds  of 
" powdered"  arsenate  of  lead  will  poison  an  acre.    If  the 
cotton  is  rank,  more  poison  will  be  necessary.    One  good 
dusting  should  be  given  at  the  beginning  of  each  crop  of 
worms.     No  time  should  be  lost  in  applying  the  poison 
after  the  first  damage  is  noticed. 

INSECTS   OF  SECONDARY   IMPORTANCE 

168.  The  cotton  leaf -louse.  —  This  is  a  small  green 
louse  often  found  in  great  numbers  on  the  tender  parts 
of  young  cotton  plants.    In  cool  seasons  this  insect  does 
much  damage  to  cotton  by  sucking  the  sap  from  the 
plants.    It  usually  disappears  when  settled  hot  weather 
comes. 

No  thoroughly  practical  method  is  known  for  destroy- 
ing the  cotton  leaf-louse.  Any  insecticide  that  kills  by 
contact  would  destroy  this  pest,  yet  the  practicability 


IMPORTANT  INSECT  ENEMIES  OF  COTTON    139 

of  these  methods  for  treating  cotton  is  questionable. 
Rather  late  planting  of  cotton  has  been  found  helpful 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  cotton  leaf-louse  does  most  of 
its  destructive  work  early  in  the  season.  There  are  some 
natural  enemies  of  the  cotton  leaf-louse  that  help  to  keep 
it  in  check,  such  as  the  lady-beetles  and  certain  small 
black  four-winged  flies.  These  flies  sting  tne  lice  and 
deposit  their  eggs  in  their  bodies. 

169.  The   cotton  red-spider   (Tetranychus   gloveri).  - 
This  small  ''mite"  is  often  found  in  great  numbers  congre- 
gated along  the  veins  and  in  the  depressions  on  the  lower 
surface  of  the  leaves  of  the  cotton  plant.    It  injures  the 
cotton  by  sucking  the  sap  from  the  tender  part  of  the 
plants,  causing,  at  first,  the  appearance  of  "  slight  yellow 
spots  "  on  the  surface  of  the  leaves.    As  the  injury  increases 
the  spots  become  larger  and  the  leaves  begin  to  curl.    The 
cotton,  when  badly  infested,  has  somewhat  the  appearance 
of  "rusted  cotton." 

Treatment  is  seldom  attempted,  although  dusting  with 
powdered  sulphur  in  such  a  way  as  to  blow  it  on  the 
under  side  of  the  leaves  has  been  recommended.  When 
the  injury  is  first  noticed  all  injured  plants  should  be  pulled 
and  burned.  Spraying  these  injured  plants  with  a  two 
per  cent  solution  of  scalecide  or  a  two  per  cent  lime-sulphur 
solution,  is  also  recommended. 

170.  The  cowpea  pod-weevil  (Chalcodermis  aeneus).  — 
This  beetle  or  .weevil  does  most  damage  to  cotton  on  areas 
where  cowpeas  was  the  previous  crop.    The  weevil  is  black 
with  a  long  snout  and  is  often  mistaken  for  the  cotton  boll- 
weevil.    It  injuries  the  growing  tender  parts  and  buds  of 
young  cotton  plants. 

Where  the  cowpea  pod-weevil  is  very  abundant  it  is 
advisable  to  plant  no  cowpeas  on  land  that  is  to  be  planted 


140        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

to  cotton  the  next  year.  Other  legumes,  such  as  soy  beans, 
velvet  beans,  and  crimson  clover  may  be  introduced  into 
the  rotation  instead  of  growing  cowpeas. 

Any  treatment  that  will  hasten  the  growth  of  young 
cotton  will  decrease  the  injury  from  this  pest. 


CHAPTER  XII 

t 

DISEASES  OF  COTTON 

IT  is  estimated  that  the  annual  loss  to  cotton-growers 
in  the  South  as  a  result  of  cotton  diseases  varies  between 
twenty-five  and  thirty  millions  of  dollars.  The  suscepti- 
bility of  the  cotton  plant  to  disease  is  influenced  by  sea- 
sonal conditions,  the  greatest  damage  occurring  during 
seasons  of  heavy  rainfall.  It  is  also  true  that  the  preva- 
lence of  certain  cotton  diseases  is  governed  largely  by  soil 
type.  Those  diseases  which  cause  the  greatest  injury  to 
the  cotton  crop  in  the  south  are  wilt,  root-rot,  root-knot, 
anthracnose,  and  Mosaic  disease,  incorrectly  called 
"rust." 

COTTON-WILT  (Neocosmospora  vasinfecta} 

171.  Occurrence.  —  Cotton-wilt  occurs  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent  in  every  cotton  producing  state  from  North 
Carolina  to  Texas.    It  is  most  serious  in  the  regions  of 
sandy  soils  comprising  southern  and  eastern  South  Caro- 
lina, southwestern  Georgia  and  southeastern  Alabama.    It 
is  pointed  out  by  Gilbert,  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry, 
that  the  available  records  indicate  an  annual  loss  in  the 
cotton-belt  of  at  least  $10,000,000  from  cotton-wilt  alone. 

172.  Cause.  —  The  cotton-wilt  disease  is.  caused  by  a 
microscopic  fungus  which  lives  as  a  saprophyte  on  the 
decaying  organic  matter  in  the  soil.     After  entering  the 
root  of  a  cotton  plant  it  becomes  at  once  a  true  parasite. 
This  fungus  produces  various  types  of  fruiting  bodies  or 

141 


142        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

spores  by  means  of  which  the  disease  is  propagated.  Any 
agency  that  will  transfer  these  spores  or  the  infected  soil 
from  one  part  of  the  field  to  another  will  serve  to  spread  the 
disease.  Chief  among  these  agencies  are  cultivating  tools, 
wind,  drainage  water,  and  the  feet  of  men  or  of  work 
animals. 

The  fungi  that  produce  the  wilts  of  cowpeas,  tomatoes, 
watermelons,  tobacco,  and  okra  are  thought  to  be  closely 
related  to  the  cotton-wilt  fungus.  There  is  no  proof, 
however,  that  these  diseases  are  communicable  to  cotton. 

173.  Symptoms.  —  The  first  appearance  of  this  dis- 
ease is  indicated  by  the  yellowing  of  the  leaves  at  their 
margins  and  between  the  veins.     Later  the  leaves  wilt 
and  fall  from  the  plants.     The  characteristic  tendency 
of  cotton  plants  to  wilt  when  infected  with  this  disease  is 
due  to  the  growth  of  the  fungus  in  the  water-carrying 
vessels  of  the  roots  and  stems,  such  a  growth  cutting  off 
the  water  supply  to  the  upper  portions  of  the  plant.    Us- 
ually the  badly  affected  plants  are  completely  killed  while 
others  may  lose  only  a  portion  of  their  leaves,  but  the 
plants  thereafter  possess  a  stunted  appearance.     An  ex- 
amination of  the  tap-root  or  lower  part  of  the  main-stem 
of  a  cotton  plant  affected  with  wilt  will  reveal  a  brownish 
color  of  the  wood  in  the  region  of  the  water-ducts.    This 
darkened  color  is  the  result  of  the  closely  woven  hyphse 
of  the  fungus  growing  in  the  water-carrying  vessels. 

Cotton-wilt  usually  makes  its  appearance  at  first  in 
small  restricted  areas  throughout  the  cotton  field,  which 
gradually  become  larger  until  the  entire  field  is  affected, 
provided  cotton  is  grown  on  the  same  land  year  after  year. 

174.  Remedies.  —  Although    barnyard    manure    and 
various  fertilizing  materials  have  been  suggested  as  a 
means  of  controlling  wilt,  both  farm  experience  and  ex- 


DISEASES  OF  COTTON  143 

periments  have  demonstrated  that  these  materials  are 
ineffective.  As  the  fungus  lives  from  year  to  year  on  the 
organic  content  of  the  soil,  the  use  of  fungicides  or  steriliza- 
tion processes  are  not  practical.  Much  can  be  done  to 
decrease  the  prevalence  of  this  disease  by  keeping  cotton 
off  the  diseased  soil  for  a  number  of  years.  It  is  almost 
impossible,  however,  completely  to  starve  out  cotton-wilt 
by  crop  rotation,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  fungus  will 
live  as  a  saprophyte  on  the  organic  matter  of  the  soil  for 
many  years  even  though  all  host  plants  are  kept  off  the 
land. 

The  most  effective  means  of  avoiding  injury  from  wilt 
is  the  cultivation  of  wilt-resistant  varieties.  It  has  been 
found  that  the  commercial  varieties  of  cotton  differ  greatly 
as  regards  their  susceptibility  to  wilt.  Generally  speaking, 
the  large-boiled  varieties  are  more  susceptible  than  are 
the  other  groups.  Beginning  with  some  of  the  more  or 
less  resistant  small-boiled  varieties  as  a  basis,  the  Bureau 
of  Plant  Industry  has,  as  a  result  of  15  or  20  years'  breed- 
ing, developed  several  strains  of  cotton  that  show  marked 
power  of  wilt  resistance.  In  fact,  so  resistant  are  these 
strains  that  there  is  now  little  doubt  as  to  the  possibility 
of  controlling  the  disease  in  this  way.  The  more  impor- 
tant of  these  resistant  varieties  are  Dillon,  Dixie,  and 
Modella. 

In  the  growing  of  these  varieties  much  care  must  be  ex- 
ercised to  see  that  no  crossing  from  other  less  resistant 
varieties  is  permitted  and  that  the  seed  is  not  mixed  at  the 
gin  with  other  varieties. 

COTTON  ROOT-ROT  (Ozonium  omnivorum) 

175.  Occurrence.  —  So  far,  this  disease  has  caused 
very  little  damage  to  cotton  grown  east  of  Texas.  It  is 


144        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

most  injurious  in  the  Houston  clay  or  black  waxy  soils 
of  the  southwest.  This  soil  is  usually  quite  compact  and 
often  poorly  aerated,  a  condition  which  seems  favorable 
to  the  development  of  the  fungus  causing  this  disease. 

Root-rot  occurs  on  many  plants  other  than  cotton, 
such  as  alfalfa,  cowpeas,  sweet  potatoes,  and  a  rather 
large  number  of  dicotyledonous  weeds.  It  does  not, 
however,  seem  to  occur  upon  monocotyledonous  plants, 
such  as  corn,  sorghums,  the  small-grains,  and  grasses. 

176.  Cause.  —  Cotton  root-rot  is  caused  by  a  fungus 
parasite  which  lives  and  spreads  in  the  soil.    Very  little 
seems  to  be  known  about  this  infection  or  the  progressive 
stages  of  the  disease.    The  mycelium  penetrates  the  bark 
and  also  the  wood  of  the  roots  but  it  does  not  usually 
extend  into  the  wood  far  above  the  surface  of  the  soil. 

177.  Symptoms.  —  The   presence   of   this   disease   is 
usually  first  noticed  by  the  sudden  wilting  and  dying  of 
the  cotton  plants.     An  examination  of  the  root-system 
of  the  diseased  plant  will  show  that  the  rootlets  and  ex- 
ternal surface  of  the  roots  have  been  destroyed.     The 
fungus  also  invades  the  fibro-vascular  system  of  the  under- 
ground parts  of  the  plant.    The  surface  of  the  diseased 
roots  is  usually  covered  with  dirty  yellowish  strands  or 
thin  wefts  of  the  fungus  filaments.     While  a  few  plants 
are  sometimes  killed  by  this  disease  during  the  early 
stages  of  their  growth,  they  are  far  more  commonly  killed 
after  some  of  the  bolls  begin  to  mature. 

178.  Remedies.  —  As  this  disease  thrives  best  in  an 
unaerated  soil,  remedial  measures  are  based  largely-  on 
the  principle  that  air  must  circulate  freely  through  the 
soil.     Where   possible,   deep   fall   plowing   is   advisable. 
Investigations    conducted   near   Luling,    Texas,    by   the 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Washington,  D.  C.,  indicate 


DISEASES  OF  COTTON  145 

that  the  soil  should  be  plowed  not  less  than  seven  and 
preferably  nine  inches  deep  if  favorable  results  are  to  be 
expected.  It  was  also  found  that  subsoiling  was  very 
effective  in  decreasing  the  disease. 

As  root-rot  does  not  affect  grasses  and  grains,  the  prev- 
alence of  the  disease  is  greatly  decreased  by  growing  these 
crops  on  the  land  for  two  or  three  years  preceding  the  grow- 
ing of  cotton.  The  results  obtained  from  practicing  such 
a  cropping  system  are,  however,  not  always  uniform  and 
satisfactory. 

The  application  of  fungicides  or  other  chemicals  or  fer- 
tilizers to  the  soil  as  a  means  of  controlling  root-rot  is 
entirely  impractical. 

ROOT-KNOT  (Heterodera  radidcola) 

179.  Occurrence.  —  Root-knot   is   essentially   a   pest 
characteristic  of  light,  sandy  soils.     As  a  rule,  it  is  not 
serious  on  soils  containing  a  large  percentage  of  clay. 
This  disease  is  very  often  associated  with  cotton-wilt  in  its 
occurrence.     Unlike  cotton-wilt,  the  root-knot  attacks  a 
large  number  of  plants  other  than  cotton.     Some  of  the 
plants  often  affected  by  this  disease  are,  —  soy  bean, 
cowpea  (all  varieties  except  Iron  and  Brabham  and  cer- 
tain hybrids  of  these  varieties),  crimson  clover,  bur  clover, 
cucumber,  watermelon,  tomato,  tobacco,  peach,  and  pecan. 

180.  Cause.  —  This  trouble  is  caused  by  microscopic 
worms  known  as  nematodes  or  eel  worms  which  burrow 
into  the  roots,  thus  setting  up  irritations  which  later  de- 
velop into  wart-like  excrescences  or  knots.    These  worms 
vary  in  length  from  1/2o  to  Veo  of  an  inch.    The  knots  or 
galls  produced  by  these  worms  vary  in  size  from  tiny 
enlargements  on  the  small  roots  to  knots  an  inch  or  more  in 
diameter  on  the  large  ones. 


146        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

181.  Symptoms.  —  One  of  the  first  symptoms  of  this 
disease  is  the  dwarfing  of  the  plants.    Many  of  the  badly 
affected  plants  wilt  and  die.     In  other  cases  the  plants 
may  show  no  striking  symptoms  other  than  those  exhibited 
by  the  roots.  -  It  has  been  noticed  that  when  the  affected 
roots  begin  to  die,  new  roots  are  sent  out  finally  resulting 
in  a  bushy  and  somewhat  tangled  root-system. 

As  previously  mentioned,  root-knot  is  often  associated 
with  cotton-wilt,  in  which  case  it  increases  the  injury 
due  to  the  latter  disease.  The  wounds  which  the  nema- 
todes  make  in  the  roots  furnish  points  of  entrance  for  the 
wilt  fungus,  which  then  completes  the  destructive  work. 

182.  Remedy.  —  Root-knot  can  be  controlled  by  the 
use  of  proper  crop  rotations.     In  arranging  this  rotation 
one  must  remember  that  only  such  crops  as  are  immune 
to  the  nematode  attacks  must  be  grown  until  the  worms 
are  sufficiently  starved  out  of  the  soil  to  permit  the  suc- 
cessful growth  of  susceptible  crops.    It  is  also  important 
that  any  weeds  attacked  by  these  worms  be  eradicated. 
In  ridding  the  soil  of  the  nematode  disease,  many  farmers 
grow  small-grains  on  the  land  during  the  winter  months, 
and  occupy  the  land  during  the  summer  with  sorghum, 
millet,  June  corn,  or  the  resistant  varieties  of  cowpeas. 

COTTON  ANTHRACNOSE  (Glomerella  gossypii) 

183.  Occurrence.  —  Anthracnose,     often    known    as 
pink-boll  or  boll-rot,  occurs  very  generally  throughout 
the  cotton-belt.    It  is  estimated  that  the  annual  loss  from 
the  disease  amounts  to  several  million  dollars.    Seasonal 
conditions  determine,  to  a  large  extent,  the  prevalence  of 
this  disease.    A  very  dry.  season  retards  the  development 
of  the  Spores  and  affords  a  natural  means  of  control.    Wet 
seasons  greatly  augment  the  injury  from  anthracnose. 


DISEASES  OF  COTTON  147 

184.  Cause.  —  This  disease  is  caused  by  a  mold-like 
parasitic  fungus  which  penetrates  almost  all  portions  of  the 
cotton  plant.     Recent  investigations  have  revealed  the 
fact  that  in  the  development  of  anthracnose,  two  kinds  of 
spores  are  produced,  namely,  the  conidia  and  the  asco 
spores.    The  former  are  produced  by  the  millions  and  are 
responsible  for  the  pink  coloring  so  characteristic  of  the 
disease.    It  seems  that  the  perfect  or  asco  spore  stage  of  the 
disease  has  been  only  rarely  observed.     Anthracnose  is 
spread  by  insects  or  under  certain  conditions  by  the  wind. 
It  is  also  carried  in  or  on  the  seed.    Spores  of  this  fungus 
are  left  in  the  cotton  gin  by  badly  diseased  lots  of  cotton, 
the  result  being  that  seed  otherwise  free  from  the  disease 
are  infected. 

185.  Symptoms.  —  Usually   the   first   visible   indica- 
tion of  anthracnose  is  the  occurrence  on  the  bolls  of  minute 
round,  dull  reddish  spots.    As  these  spots  increase  in  size, 
the  spores  develop  and  give  the  diseased  portion  a  char- 
acteristic pinkish  color.    In  very  dry  weather  the  spores  are 
scarce  and  the  diseased  areas  may  have  a  grayish  cast. 

Badly  diseased  bolls  produce  rotten  and  discolored  lint. 
Often  they  only  partially  open  and  the  lint  is  hard  to 
gather  and  in  many  cases  is  left  in  the  field.  Much  damage 
is  also  done  in  cases  where  this  disease  attacks  the  young 
seedlings;  it  often  completely  kills  the  sprouts  before  they 
appear  above  ground  or  causes  a  "  damping-off "  near  the 
soil  of  seedlings  that  are  from  2  to  4  inches  high.  The 
pedicels  of  the  bolls  are  often  attacked,  the  result  of  which 
attack  is  that  the  bolls  dry  up  and  drop  off. 

186.  Remedies.  —  Experiments   have  indicated  that 
anthracnose  is  a  disease  that  is  largely  preventable.    Pre- 
ventive measures  involve,  (1)  planting  only  seed  that  is 
free  from  disease,  (2)  crop  rotation  combined  with  fall 


148        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

plowing,  and  (3)  the  use  of  varieties  least  susceptible  to 
the  disease. 

In  dealing  with  anthracnose,  one  must  remember  that 
the  fungus  will  live  from  one  season  to  another  in  the  seed ; 
therefore  it  is  of  supreme  importance  that  planting  seed 
be  secured  from  undiseased  portions  of  the  field.  It  has 
also  been  proved  that  the  anthracnose  fungus  can  survive 
in  the  field  for  at  least  a  year  on  diseased  bolls.  It  is  there- 
fore imperative  that  cotton  is  not  grown  two  years  in 
succession  on  land  infected  with  this  disease.  If  some  crop 
other  than  cotton  is  grown  on  the  land,  the  disease  will 
largely  die  out  within  one  year.  It  seems  that  rather  short 
rotations  are  very  effective  in  fighting  this  disease. 

Fall  plowing  and  the  growth  of  winter  cover-crops  tend 
to  reduce  the  prevalence  of  anthracnose. 

MOSAIC   DISEASE 

187.  Occurrence.  —  This  disease  is  often  known  as 
black-rust  and  yellow  leaf-blight.     It  is  rather  common 
throughout  the  cotton-belt,  doing  its  greatest  damage  on 
light  wornout   sandy  soils   or   soils  deficient  in  humus. 
Under  such  conditions  the  yields  of  cotton  are  often  re- 
duced from  50  to  75  per  cent  as  a  result  of  mosaic  disease. 
Any  sudden  check  to  active  growth  of  the  plants  may  in- 
crease the  prevalence  of  the  disease. 

188.  Cause.  —  Mosaic  disease  is  termed  a  physiologi- 
ical  disease  in  that  the  fungi  causing  the  trouble  do  not 
usually  attack  thrifty  and  vigorous  plants,  but  only  those 
plants  that  have  been  weakened  as  a  result  of  unfavorable 
conditions.     Probably    the    three    most    important    soil 
factors  responsible  for  the  prevalence  of  mosaic  disease 
are  (1)  lack  of  humus,  (2)  lack  of  potash,  and  (3)  lack  of 
drainage. 


DISEASES  OF  COTTON  149 

189.  Symptoms.  —  Usually  the  first  indication  of  this 
disease  is  the  yellow,  mottled  appearance  of  the  leaves. 
It  is  also  a  characteristic  of  this  disease  that  the  parts 
of  the  leaves  farthest  from  the  leaf  veins  " yellow"  first. 
This  diseased  condition  of  the  leaves  so  weakens  them  that 
they  are  often  attacked  by  other  fungi,  and,  as  a  con- 
sequence, are  totally  destroyed.    The  premature  loss  of  the 
foliage  prevents  the  normal  maturing  of  late  bolls.    The 
lint  of  diseased  plants  is  often  of  inferior  quality. 

190.  Remedies.  —  Prevention,  rather  than  cure,  must 
be  employed  in  controlling  mosaic  disease.    The  unfavor- 
able soil  conditions  must  be  eliminated.    Good  drainage, 
the  employment  of  cropping  systems  that  will  maintain 
the  organic  matter  in  the  soil,  and  the  addition  of  potash 
fertilizers  to  sandy  soils,  are  the  most  important  preventive 
measures. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
MAIZE  OR  INDIAN  CORN  (Zea  Mays) 

INDIAN  corn  is  an  annual  grass,  making  its  growth  during 
the  warmer  part  of  the  year.  Its  most  important  use  is  as 
a  food  for  live-stock.  The  crop  may  be  grown  to  maturity 
and  the  grain  fed  either  whole  or  ground  and  the  stalk  and 
leaves  utilized  as  a  cured  forage  or  stover.  The  plants 
may  be  utilized  before  fully  mature  as  silage  or  for  soiling 
purposes. 

The  grain  of  corn  is  also  rather  widely  used  as  a  human 
food.  Cornbread  is  the  most  important  product  of  corn 
for  human  consumption,  while  certain  breakfast  foods  and 
corn  starch  are  secondary  products. 

DESCRIPTION   OF   THE   CORN   PLANT 

191.  The  root-system.  —  The  corn  plant  produces 
three  classes  of  roots.  These  are  temporary  roots,  primary 
roots,  and  adventitious  roots.  The  root-system  is  not 
characterized  by  a  tap-root  such  as  is  found  in  cotton. 

Temporary  roots.  —  These  roots  serve  to  maintain  the 
young  plant  during  the  first  few  days  of  its  existence. 
When  a  kernel  of  corn  is  planted,  the  first  evidence  of 
germination  is  the  swelling  or  enlargement  of  the  kernel 
due  to  the  absorption  of  water.  Soon  a  small  root  emerges 
from  the  tip  end  of  the  seed  and  a  little  later  2  to  6  addi- 
tional roots  sprout  from  a  point  midway  between  the  first 
root  and  the  germ  chit.  At-about  the  same  time  the  "stem 
sprout"  or  plumule  appears  from  the  upper  end  of  the 

150 


MAIZE  OR  INDIAN  CORN  151 

germ  chit  or  near  the  crown  of  the  kernel.  These  tem- 
porary roots  die  as  soon  as  the  primary  roots  begin  to 
develop. 

The  primary  roots.  —  The  primary  or  permanent  roots 
spring  from  the  node  of  the  underground  stem,  usually 
about  one  inch  below  the  surface  of  the  soil.  The  depth 
at  which  these  roots  originate  and  develop  is,  as  a  rule, 
independent  of  the  depth  of  planting,  although  the  Kansas 
Station  has  showed  that  "the  roots  of  listed  corn  lie  uni- 
formly deeper  in  the  soil  than  the  roots  of  surface  planted 
corn."  The  primary  roots  of  corn  grow  very  rapidly  and 
branch  profusely.  Growth  takes  place  as  a  result  of  the 
constant  addition  of  new  cells  at  the  growing  point,  which 
is  located  just  back  of  the  cap  or  tip.  The  result  of  this  is 
that  the  tip  of  the  root  is  pushed  through  the  soil.  During 
the  early  stages  growth  is  largely  in  a  longitudinal  direc- 
tion. When  the  root  growth  has  extended  to  a  distance  of 
from  12  to  20  inches  from  the  base  of  the  plant,  a  portion 
of  the  roots  turn  abruptly  downward,  presumably  to  better 
enable  the  plant  to  secure  water.  In  time  these  roots  may 
grow  to  a  depth  of  3  or  4  feet.  Lateral  growth  also  con- 
tinues until  the  entire  upper  3  to  6  inches  of  the  soil  be- 
tween the  corn  rows  is  completely  filled  with  a  mass  of 
much  branched,  fibrous  feeding  roots.  Under  favorable 
conditions  the  lateral  spread  of  corn  roots  is  very  rapid. 
Studies  on  root  growth  at  the  North  Dakota  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  revealed  that  within  thirty  days  after 
planting,  corn  roots  from  hills  3  feet  apart  had  met  midway 
between  the  hills  at  a  depth  of  about  4  inches  from  the 
surface  (Fig.  20). 

Observations  at  the  New  York,  Minnesota,  Wisconsin 
and  Colorado  Stations  indicate  that  during  the  first  ten 
to  twelve  days  corn  roots  will  spread  laterally  in  the  soil 


152        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

to  a  distance  of  16  to  18  inches  and  that  by  the  time  the 
plants  are  coming %  in  to  tassel  the  root-system  may  cover 
a  radius  of  4  feet. 

The  depths  at  which  the  greater  part  of  the  primary 
roots  of  corn  develop  varies  somewhat  in  accordance  with 
(1)  the  moisture  content  of  the  soil  during  the  growing 
season,  (2)  the  depth  at  which  the  seed-bed  has  been  pre- 
pared and  (3)  the  distance  of  the  roots  from  the  plant. 


FIG.  20.  —  Root  distribution  of  corn  at  silking  time. 

In  wet  seasons  the  tendency  is  for  the  roots  to  develop  very 
near  the  surface  of  the  soil.  This  is  especially  true  in  cases 
of  protracted  rainy  weather  during  the  first  part  of  the 
growing  season.  On  a  deeply  prepared  seed-bed  the  feed- 
ing zone  of  the  roots  is  much  deeper  than  where  shallow 
preparation  has  been  practiced.  As  a  rule,  the  upper  roots 
6  inches  from  the  plant  are  about  3  inches  below  the  sur- 
face and  gradually  increase  in  depth  to  4  or  5  inches  at  a 
distance  of  2  feet  from  the  plant. 


MAIZE  OR  INDIAN  CORN  153 

192.  Structure  of  roots.  —  A  young  feeding  root  is 
made  up  of  four  different  parts  as  follows:  (1)  The  epider- 
mis or  "piliferous  layer"  composed  of  a  single  layer  of 
cells  which  forms  the  outermost  layer  of  the  root.    From 
these  epidermal  cells  the  root-hairs  develop.     This  layer 
together  with  the  root-hairs  is  really  the  absorbing  surface 
for  food  and  moisture.     (2)  A  rather  thick  layer  of  thin- 
walled  cells  lying  just  inside  the  epidermis  and  known  as 
the  cortex.    This  layer  corresponds  to  the  bark  on  a  stem. 
(3)  The  endodermis  which  is  really  the  innermost  layer  of 
the  cortex  cells.     This  layer  is  differentiated  by  thicker 
walls  to  form  a  definite  sheath,  the  probable  function  of 
which  is  to  prevent  the  escape  of  plant-food  on  its  upward 
course  through  the  central  column  of  the  root.     (4)  The 
central  cylinder  which  is  a  columnar  mass  of  cells  com- 
prising the  central  portion  of  the  root  through  which  the 
plant-food  is  carried  upward  to  the  stem  and  leaves. 

193.  Adventitious  roots.  —  During  the  latter  part  of 
the  growing  period,  corn  often  puts  out  roots  at  the  first 
two  or  three  nodes  above  the  surface  of  the  soil.    These 
roots  are  termed  "brace  roots"  or  "prop  roots"  because 
they  serve  to  brace  the  plant  against  wind.     In  the  air 
these  roots  are,  as  a  rule,  unbranched,  but  they  branch 
rather  profusely  after  entering  the  soil  and  in  addition 
to  bracing  the  plant,  they  take  up  moisture  and  food. 

194.  Stems.  —  The  stem  of  corn  is  more  variable  in 
size  and  height  than  that  of  any  other  cereal.     In  some 
varieties  of  pop-corn  the  stems  or  culms  will  not  average 
over  20  inches  high.    In  the  West  Indies,  corn  often  grows 
to  a  height  of  30  feet  or  more.    From  5  to  10  feet  is  the 
average  variation  in  the  United  States.    Soil,  climate  and 
variety  are  the  important  factors  that  determine  the  height 
of  corn  plants.     In  the  northern  latitudes  of  the  United 


154        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

States  where  the  growing  season  is  relatively  short  corn 
plants  are  not  nearly  so  tall  as  in  the  southern  United 
States.  The  diameter  of  an  average  corn  stem  between 
the  first  and  second  nodes  in  most  field  varieties  will  be 
from  one  to  one  and  a  half  inches. 

195.  Structure  of  the  stem.  —  The  culm  of  corn  is 
made  up  of  a  succession  of  nodes  and  internodes.  It  differs 
from  that  of  other  cereals  in  that  it  is  filled  with  pith  rather 
than  being  hollow.  The  internodes  of  the  corn  stem  are 
short  at  the  base,  gradually  increasing  in  length  toward 
the  upper  end,  —  a  modification  which  adds  strength  to  the 
culm.  That  portion  of  the  culm  which  extends  beneath  the 
ground  surface  is  composed  of  a  series  of  six  or  eight  short 
nodes,  each  bearing  a  whorl  of  roots.  The  above-ground 
nodes  serve  as  points  of  attachment  for  the  leaves,  the 
ear-branches,  and  the  tillers.  Each  above-ground  node 
bears  a  leaf  and  also  a  bud.  With  most  varieties  under 
normal  conditions,  only  one  or  two  of  the  buds  develop, 
the  others  remaining  dormant. 

A  number  of  the  above-ground  internodes  of  corn  are 
alternately  grooved  or  flattened.  Each  groove  is  covered 
by  a  leaf-sheath  and  accommodates  the  embryonic  ear  or 
the  young  ear-branch  as  the  case  may  be. 

If  a  cross-section  of  the  corn  stem  is  examined,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  outer  covering  of  the  stem  is  a  thin  shell  of 
hard  tissue  which  is  really  a  mass  of  closely  woven  fibro- 
vascular  bundles.  The  chief  function  of  this  outer  tissue 
is  to  give  strength  and  rigidity  to  the  stem.  The  central 
portion  of  the  stem  is  composed  of  a  mass  of  large  and 
loosely  arranged  parenchyma  cells  known  as  the  pith. 
Throughout  this  loose  mass  of  tissue  are  the  fibrous  strands 
or  fibro-vascular  bundles  which  serve  as  the  circulatory 
ducts  for  the  water  and  dissolved  food  in  their  passage 


MAIZE  OK  INDIAN  CORN 


155 


from  the  roots  to  the  leaves.     This  fibro-vascular  tissue 
serves  also  as  the  passages  for  the  return  to  the  roots,  ears, 


node. 

above    ground 
3 


30  dn- 

"I  * 

FIG.  21. —  Structure  of  corn  plant  at  different  stages 
of  growth:  (1)  Stalk  one  month  old  with  leaves  re- 
moved. A,  tassel;  B,  rudimentary  buds  of  ears 
and  branches  of  which  only  one  or  two  develop  into 
ears;  R,  roots;  Rl,  root  buds  —  often  called  "brace 
roots; "  S,  a  branch  or  sucker.  (2)  Stalk  fifty  days 
old  with  the  leaves  removed :  a,  the  first  whorl  of 
brace  roots;  6,  rudimentary  buds;  6',  the  bud  at  b 
enlarged  to  show  the  rudimentary  branch  of  the 
bud;  b*,  the  ear. 

and  stem  of  the  food  material  that  has  been  elaborated  in 
the  leaves  from  the  materials  secured  from  the  air  and  soil. 


156        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

These  conducting  tubes  are  large  and  numerous  in  the 
corn  stem,  a  characteristic  that  helps  to  account  for  the 
very  rapid  growth  of  corn  under  favorable  conditions. 

196.  Tillers.  —  Under  certain  conditions  and  in  cer- 
tain varieties  there '  is  a  tendency  for  corn  to  develop 
branches  or  tillers  at  the  base  of  the  plant,  due  to  the 
growth  of  the  buds  located  in  the  axils  of  the  first  leaves. 
As  a  rule  these  latent  buds  remain  dormant  but  if  condi- 
tions are  favorable,  as  is  the  case  when  corn  is  grown  on  a 
rich  soil  well  supplied  with  moisture,  or  when  the  plants 
are  left  far  apart,  they  may  become  active  and  produce 
shoots  which  develop  their  own  root-systems  and  in  a 
measure  function  as  normal  plants. 

While  it  is  true  that  soil  and  climatic  conditions  deter- 
mine, in  a  large  measure,  the  tendency  of  corn  to  tiller, 
investigations  have  demonstrated  that  tillering  is,  to  an 
extent,  a  hereditary  tendency  and  can  be  influenced  by 
seed  selection. 

197.  Leaves.  —  The  leaves  of  the  corn  plant  alternate 
on  opposite  sides  of  the  stem  and  are  therefore  spoken  of  as 
being  two-ranked.    Each  leaf  is  composed  of  three  parts; 
the  sheath,  the  ligule,  and  the  blade.    The  sheath  is  that 
portion  of  the  leaf  that  surrounds  the  stem.    It  serves  to 
anchor  the  leaf  and  also  protects  the  bud  or  e'mbryonic  ear. 
The  ligule  is  a  membranous  outgrowth  at  the  point  where 
the  blade  joins  the  sheath.    It  is  often  spoken  of  as  the 
rainguard  from  the  fact  that  it  prevents  the  water  and  dirt 
which  run  down  the  grooved  surface  of  the  blade,  from 
entering  between  the  sheath  and  the  stem.    The  blade  is 
that  part  of  the  leaf  that  naturally  hangs  free  from  the 
stem.    The  margins  of  the  blade  are  wavy,  owing  to  the 
fact  that  the  edges  grow  faster  than  the  middle.     This 
folded  or  wavy  condition  is  a  natural  contrivance  which 


MAIZE  OR  INDIAN  .CORN  157 

gives  the  blade  elasticity  and  thus  enables  it  to  withstand 
wind.  The  blade  is  supported  by  the  midrib  and  veins 
which  are  merely  branches  or  extensions  of  the  fibro- 
vascular  system  previously  mentioned  in  connection  with 
the  stem  structure. 

The  surface  of  the  leaf  is  covered  with  a  strong  epi- 
dermis, which  contains  many  stomata.  These  stomata 
furnish  the  means  by  which  air  passes  into  and  out  of  the 
leaf.  They  are  also  passage  ways  for  the  transpiration  of 
moisture  and  for  the  intake  of  carbon  dioxide  from  the 
air. 

A  microscopic  examination  of  the  internal  structure  of 
the  leaf  will  reveal  a  large  number  of  chlorophyll  grains. 
It  is  to  these  chlorophyll  bodies  that  the  green  color  of 
the  plant  is  due.  The  chief  function  of  the  chlorophyll 
bodies  is  to  arrest  and  make  use  of  the  energy  of  the  sun's 
rays  in  performing  the  various  activities  of  the  plant. 

198.  The  flower.  —  The  corn  plant  bears  its  stamens 
and  pistils  in  separate  flowers  on  the  same  specimen  and 
is  therefore  monoecious.  The  staminate  flowers  are  borne 
in  clusters  at  the  top  of  the  plant,  forming  what  is  com- 
monly termed  the  tassel.  The  tassel  is  really  a  panicle 
of  spikelets,  each  spikelet  bearing  two  flowers.  Each 
flower  has  three  stamens,  which,  as  they  mature,  lengthen 
and  thrust  the  pollen  sacs  or  anthers  outside  of  the  flower 
where  they  are  exposed  to  the  wind.  When  the  anthers 
are  mature  they  open  and  liberate  the  pollen  grains. 
It  is  estimated  that  each  anther  produces  about  2500  pol- 
len grains  and  that  a  single  tassel  produces  approximately 
7500  anthers,  resulting  in  the  production  of  approximately 
18,750,000  pollen  grains  to  a  plant.  Investigations  as  to 
the  relative  number  of  pollen  grains  to  ovaries  produced 
by  a  corn  plant  indicate  that  for  every  ovary  there  are 


158        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

from  10,000  to  20,000  pollen  grains.  This  excess  of  pollen 
grains  is  essential  because  of  the  relatively  small  number 
that  really  come  in  contact  with  the  silks. 

199.  The  pistillate  flowers  are  produced  on  a  modified 
branch  coming  from  the  axil  of  a  leaf  on  the  main  stem. 
This  branch  is  merely  a  succession  of  nodes  and  at  its 
terminus  is  borne  a  hard  spike  (the  cob)  on  which  the 
pistillate  flowers  develop  in  even  numbered  rows.    Each 
spikelet  on  the  spike  or  cob  produces  two  flowers,  one  of 
which  is  abortive.     The  other  flower  develops  normally 
and  is  composed  of  (1)  a  flowering  glume  and  palea,  (2) 
an  ovary,  (3)  a  long,  hairy  style  known  as  the  silk,  and 

(4)  the  stigma  or  that  part 
of  the  silk  that  receives  the 
pollen.  The  outer  end  of 
the  silk  is  often  split  and 
besides  possessing  a  cover- 
ing of  small  hairs,  secretes  a 
mucilaginous  substance 
which  aids  in  collecting 
pollen.  There  is  but  one 
style  for  each  ovary. 

The  spike  and  pistillate 
flowers  are  closely  covered 
and  protected  by  the  .modi- 
fied leaves  borne  at  the 
nodes  on  the  ear-shank. 
FIG.  22.  —  Ear  of  com  showing  ten-  These  leaves  are  spoken  of 

dency  to  laminate.  .        .       ,         __.. 

as  the  husk.    The  process 

of  fertilization  is  discussed  in  the  chapter  on  the  physiology 
of  the  corn  plant. 

200.  The  ear.  —  The  ear  is  borne  upon  a  branch  (ear- 
shank)  which  has  been  shortened  so  as  to  bring  the  nodes 


MAIZE  OR  INDIAN  CORN 


159- 


very  close  together.  The  number  of  nodes  in  the  ear- 
shank  is  the  same  as  in  the  main-stem  above  the  ear.1  At 
each  node  on  the  ear-shank  a  leaf  is  produced.  These 
leaves  are  modified  to  form  the  husk  or  covering  of  the  ear 
(Fig.  22).  Corn  ears  vary  in  size  from  one  inch  in  length 
in  some  of  the  varieties  of  pop-corn,  to  sixteen  inches  in 
some  of  the  flint  varieties.  The  number  of  rows  of  kernels 
on  an  ear  may  vary  from  4  to  48.  The  most  common  varia- 
tion is  from  4  to  12  inches  in  length  and  from  8  to  24  rows 
of  kernels.  The  number  of  ears  to  the  plant  varies  with  the 
variety  and  with  seasonal  conditions.  With  most  varieties 
one  or  two  ears  to  the  plant  are  produced,  although  the 
tendency  to  produce  several  ears  to  the  plant  is  quite 
marked  in  some  of  the  varieties  of  pop-corn  and  sweet 
corn.  The  development  of  the  ear 
is  discussed  in  the  next  chapter. 

201.  The  kernels.  —  The  corn 
kernel  is  characterized  by  its 
large  size  as  compared  with  the 
kernels  of  other  cereals.  It  also 
possesses  a  very  characteristic 
shape,  being  flattened,  usually 
triangular,  and  having  no  crease 
or  furrow  on  the  side  opposite 
the  embryo.  The  most  common 
colors  exhibited  by  corn  kernels 
are  white  and  yellow,  though 
red,  blue,  and  mixed  white  and 
red  (strawberry)  colored  kernels  are  rather  common. 

The  corn  kernel  is  composed  of  the  embryo,  the  endo- 
sperm, the  aleurone  layer,  and  the  hull  (Fig.  23).    The  em- 
bryo contains  the  young  plant  which  is  made  up  of  the  rad- 
1  Montgomery,  E.  G.,  "  The  Corn  Crops,"  p.  37. 


FIG.  23.  —  Botanical  parts 
of  the  corn  kernel  and  its 
integuments:  a,  embryo; 
6,  mature  ovary ;  c,  second 
glume;  d,  first  glume; 
e,  palea;/,  lemma;  g,  ster- 
ile palea. 


160        F'lELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


icle  surrounded  by  a  root-sheath,  a  short  hypocotyl  and  a 
simple  cotyledon,  that  encloses  the  tightly  rolled  plumular 
leaves.  The  embryo  is  characterized  by  a  high  percentage 
of  oil,  protein,  and  ash.  It  is  situated 
on  the  side  of  the  kernel  toward  the 
tip  of  the  ear. 

The  endosperm  consists  of  the  store 
of  reserve  food  surrounding  the  em- 
bryo. It  comprises  the  biggest  portion 
of  the  kernel  (73  per  cent)  and  is  char- 
acterized by  its  high  percentage  of 
starch,  although  more  than  50  per  cent 
of  the  total  protein  in  the  kernel  is  in 
the  endosperm.  Hunt  states  that  the 
endosperm  of  corn  contains  6  to  10 

FIG.  24.  —  Cross  sec-  r  no 

tion  of  the  outer  per  cent  of  protein,  89  to  93  per  cent 
of  carbohydrates  (principally  starch), 


t,  testa  or  integu-  an(j  iess  than  one-half  per  cent  each  of 

ments;  n,  nucellus; 

a,    aleurone    layer;    ash  and  fat. 

The  aleurone  layer  is  composed  of  a 
layer  of  cells  lying  between  the  hull  and  the  endosperm 
(Fig.  24).  It  is  characterized  by  its  rather  high  per- 
centage of  protein. 

The  hull  comprises  the  outer  coverings  of  the  kernel 
and  consists  of  (1)  the  pericarp  which  forms  the  greater 
part  of  the  hull  and  (2)  the  testa  which  is  a  layer  of  much 
.compressed  cells  immediately  underneath  the  pericarp. 
.  The  layers  comprising  the  hull  are  composed  largely  of 
cellulose  material. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  CORN  PLANT 

THE  life-processes  of  the  corn  plant  are  similar  to  those 
described  in  connection  with  the  cotton  plant.  Like 
cotton,  the  corn  plant  is  composed  of  a  net-work  of  cell 
walls  —  the  skeleton,  which  gives  the  plant  stability. 
Surrounded  by  these  cell-walls  is  the  protoplasm  which 
assimilates  the  food  and  carries  out  all  of  the  chemical 
processes  necessary  for  life  and  reproduction.  The  food 
elements  are  obtained  from  the  soil  by  absorption  through 
the  root-hairs  or  in  the  case  of  the  carbon  and  some  of 
the  oxygen  by  air  currents  through  the  breathing  pores 
of  the  plant,  the  stomata. 

COMPOSITION   OF  THE  CORN  PLANT 

202.  Composition.  —  The  weight  of  a  young  rapidly 
growing  corn  plant  is  approximately  90  per  cent  water 
and  10  per  cent  dry  matter.  As  growth  advances  the  per- 
centage of  dry  matter  increases  until  at  maturity  it  con- 
stitutes from  35  to  40  per  cent  of  the  total  weight  of  the 
plant.  The  composition  of  this  dry  matter  at  different 
stages  in  the  growth  of  the  corn  plant  is  shown  in  the  table 
on  page  162,  which  has  been  compiled  from  data  given 
in  Bulletin  No.  175  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
of  Purdue  University. 

The  dry  matter  of  a  corn  plant  is  much  richer  in  nitro- 
gen during  the  early  growth  of  the  plant  than  at  later 
stages  of  development.  This,  however,  does  not  neces- 

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PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  CORN  PLANT  163 

sarily  mean  that  the  corn  plant  becomes  less  active  in 
absorbing  nitrogen  compounds  as  growth  advances.  The 
explanation  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  activity  of  the  plant 
in  producing  nitrogen-free  substances  increases  rapidly 
with  growth. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  young  corn  plant  con- 
tains no  starch  but  a  large  percentage  of  nitrogen-free 
extract,  probably  the  most  of  which  is  sugar.  Until  the 
plant  reaches  the  stage  at  which  the  ear  begins  to  form, 
only  a  very  small  percentage  of  the  sugar  is  transformed 
into  starch.  During  the  subsequent  growth  of  the  plant 
the  sugar  is  transferred  in  large  quantities  to  the  ear  and 
deposited  as  starch.  At  no  time  do  the  stalks  and  leaves 
contain  more  than  6.55  per  cent  of  starch,  whereas,  accord- 
ing to  the  above  table  the  dry  weight  of  the  ear  is  made  up 
of  62.77  per  cent  starch  at  the  stage  when  the  kernels  are 
hardening.  A  large  percentage  of  the  nitrogen  taken  up 
by  the  corn  plant  during  its  early  growth  is  later  deposited 
in  the  developing  kernels. 

WATER  REQUIREMENTS 

203.  Leaf  surface.  —  On  an  acre  of  land  producing 
100  bushels  of  corn  and  three  tons  of  stover  there  are  ap- 
proximately 11,000  pounds  of  dry  matter.     To  produce 
this  large  yield  of  dry  matter  it  is  necessary  that  an  enor- 
mous quantity  of  water  pass  through  the  plants.     To 
accommodate  this  rapid  transpiration  of  water,  the  corn 
plant  is  necessarily  provided  with  a  large  leaf  surface. 

204.  Figuring  the  leaf  surface  of  a  corn  plant.  —  The 
following  method  of  figuring  the  leaf  surface  of  a  corn 
plant  is  taken  from  "Corn"  by  Bowman  and  Crossley: 
"In  figuring  the  surface  area  of  a  leaf,  measure  the  width 
three  inches  from  the  ligule,  also  at  a  point  six  inches  from 


164        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

the  tip  of  the  leaf.  Add  these  two  widths,  divide  by  two 
to  get  the  average.  Multiply  this  average  width  by  the 
length  of  the  leaf  from  the  ligule  to  that  point,  six  inches 
from  the  tip.  To  the  area  of  this  rectangle  add  the  area 
of  the  isosceles  triangle  at  the  tip  of  the  leaf,  which  is  six 
inches  in  altitude,  and  as  wide  as  the  leaf  is  at  thak  point. 
The  sum  of  the  two  areas  gives  the  leaf  surface  on  one 
side  of  a  single  leaf.  Multiply  this  sum  by  two  and  the 
entire  surface  of  leaf  will  be  ascertained.  For  approxi- 
mate calculations,  the  surface  of  one  leaf  multiplied  by 
the  number  of  leaves  on  the  stem  will  give  the  entire  leaf 
surface  of  the  stalk."  1 

205.  Conditions  affecting  water  requirements.  —  The 
term  " water  requirement"  as  here  used  indicates  the  ratio 
of  the  weight  of  water  transpired  by  a  plant  during  its 
growth  to  the  dry  matter  produced.  Studies  of  the  water 
requirements  of  corn  by  King,  Widtsoe,  Montgomery, 
Briggs  and  Shantz  of  this  country,  Wollny  of  Germany 
and  Leather  of  India  have  demonstrated  quite  clearly 
that  environmental  factors  are  important  in  determining 
the  efficiency  with  which  the  corn  plant  uses  its  water. 
The  investigations  indicate  that  when  growing  in  a  soil 
containing  the  optimum  moisture  content,  corn  will  pro- 
duce more  dry  matter  to  the  unit  of  water  transpired  than 
when  growing  in  a  very  wet  or  a  very  dry  soil. 

There  is  in  most  cases  a  reduction  in  the  water  require- 
ments of  corn  when  fertilizers  are  used,  especially  if  the 
soil  in  question  is  a  poor  one.  It  has  been  pointed  out 
that  a  high  water  requirement  is  often  due  to  a  deficiency 
in  the  soil  of  a  single  plant-food  element  in  which  case 
growth  practically  ceases  while  transpiration  goes  on. 
It  is  probably  true  that  any  condition  that  limits  the  sup- 
1  Bowman  and  Crossley,  "  Corn,"  p.  52. 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  CORN  PLANT  165 

ply  of  plant-food  in  the  soil  will  increase  the  water  require- 
ments of  the  crop  growing  on  that  soil. 

The  investigations  have  shown  the  water  requirements 
of  corn  to  be  greatly  affected  by  atmospheric  conditions. 
Other  things  being  equal,  the  rate  of  transpiration  is  faster 
and  the  water  requirements  are  greater  in  an  arid  than  in 
a  humid  atmosphere.  Shading  to  the  extent  of  reducing 
photosynthesis,  tends  to  increase  the  water  requirement. 

Montgomery  compared  narrow-leaf  and  broad-leaf 
types  of  corn  with  the  result  that  the  broad-leaf  types 
showed  the  higher  water  requirements. 

206.  Amount  of  water  required.  —  A  summary  of  the 
water  requirement   measurements   of  corn   by   different 
investigators  shows  considerable  variation  as  would  be 
expected  owing  to  the  fact  that  these  investigators  worked 
under  quite  different  conditions,  and  with  different  vari- 
eties.  To  produce  one  pound  of  dry  matter  in  corn  required 
the  absorption  and  transpiration  of  the  following  number 
of  pounds  of  water  as  given  by  the  different  investigators : 
King  working  in  Wisconsin,   350;  Widtsoe  working  in 
Utah,  386;  Briggs  and  Shantz,  working  in  Colorado,  369; 
Wollny  working  in  Germany,  233;  and  Leather  working 
in  India,  337. 

GROWTH 

207.  Growth.  —  Those  changes  involved  in  the  growth 
of  a  corn  plant  may  be  grouped  into  two  clases.    The  first 
group  of  changes  have  to  do  with  the  "extension"  of  the 
plant  or  its  increase  in  length  and  size.    The  second  group 
of  changes  result  in  a  change  of  the  internal  structure 
of  the  plant  or  differentiation  of  the  cells  into  special 
organs  with  more  or  less  definite  functions. 

The  increase  in  length  and  size  of  the  plant  results  from 


166        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

the  formation  of  new  cells  and  the  enlargement  or  extension 
of  old  cells.  The  former  process  occurs  in  what  is  known 
as  the  formative  region  where  the  cells  are  constantly 
dividing.  Adjacent  to  this  is  the  elongating  region  where 
the  cells  expand  or  enlarge  by  absorbing  large  quantities 
of  water.  Both  of  these  changes  bring  about  a  rapid  in- 
crease in  the  length  and  size  of  the  plant.  During  the  first 
three  weeks  of  growth  all  the  organs  of  a  corn  plant  are 
formed  such  as  the  full  number  of  leaves  and  nodes,  the 
embryonic  tassel,  ears  and  tillers,  and  most  of  the  main 
roots.  Subsequent  growth  involves  largely  the  extension 
of  these  parts  together  with  certain  changes  of  internal 
structure  characterized  by  the  deposition  of  starch  in  the 
ear  and  the  strengthening  of  the  fibrous  tissues.  From 
the  standpoint  of  the  farmer  the  practical  measure  of 
growth  is  the  yield  of  the  crop. 

208.  The  factors  of  growth.  —  Growth  is  conditioned 
upon  vitality  or  the  life  of  the  plant,  and  heredity  or  the 
force  which  operates  to  reproduce  specific  forms.    These 
are  the  internal  factors  of  growth.    The  external  factors 
are  moisture,  a  suitable  temperature,  oxygen,  the  various 
nutrients  and  food  materials,  and  light. 

209.  The  growth  of  roots.  —  Under  favorable  condi- 
tions the  roots  of  corn  may  elongate  at  the  rate  of  more 
than  an  inch  a  day.    The  formation  of  new  cells  occurs 
in  the  region  just  behind  the  root-cap  known  as  the  apical 
meristem.    Extending  back  from  this  zone  of  cell  division 
for  a  very  short  space  is  the  zone  of  elongation  in  which 
the  newly  formed  cells  increase  rapidly  in  size.     This 
rapid  formation  and  elongation  of  cells  tends  to  push 
forward  the  root-cap  and  the  root  is  thus  gradually  ex- 
tended in  the  soil.    New  lateral  roots  develop  in  the  region 
immediately  behind  the  growing  root-tip.     Under  favor- 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  CORN  PLANT 


167 


able  conditions  these  lateral  roots  develop  abundantly 
and  rapidly  and  the  root-system  of  corn  is  thus  profusely 
branched. 

210.  Growth  of  stems  (Fig.  25).  —  All  of  the  nodes  in 
the  stem  of  a  corn  plant  are  formed  while  the  plant  is  quite 
young.     The  subse- 
quent    growth     or 

elongation  of  the 
stem  is  due  to  the 
extension  of  the  in- 

ternodes.     Above  VM//      '%*  2 

each  node  there  is  a 
layer  of  cells  pos- 
sessing a  dark  green 
color  and  filled  with 
sap.  These  cells  to- 
gether with  the  ex- 
treme tip  of  the 
stem  constitute  the 
growing  points  of 
the  corn  stalk.  As 
the  average  corn 
stem  possesses  from 
fifteen  to  twenty 
nodes  and  conse- 
quently as  many  growing  points,  it  is  enabled  to 
lengthen  very  rapidly  during  the  growing  season.  The 
elongation  of  the  corn  stem  has  been  likened  to  the  un- 
folding of  a  telescope.  The  corn  stem  increases  in  diameter 
as  a  result  of  the  internal  accession  of  cells,  rather  than  by 
adding  layers  on  the  outside.  It  is  therefore  an  endogenous 
stem. 

211.  Growth  of  leaves.  —  The  author  has  been  able 


FIG.  25.  —  Illustrating  development  of  corn 
stem:  1,  plant  about  10  inches  high;  2,  sec- 
tion of  1,  at  base,  showing  that  all  nodes, 
leaves,  and  tassel  are  more  or  less  developed 
at  this  stage;  growth  is  internodal;  3,  full 
grown  stem  with  leaves  removed;  4,  cross- 
section  of  stem. 


168        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

to  find  very  little  data  on  the  growth  of  corn  leaves.  That 
the  growing  zone  of  a  corn  leaf  lies  at  its  base  is  shown  by 
its  continued  elongation  even  though  the  tip  of  the  leaf 
is  cut  off.  There  are,  in  all  probability,  two  active  grow- 
ing zones  in  the  corn  leaf,  one  being  at  the  base  of  the  leaf- 
sheath  and  the  other  at  the  base  of  the  blade.  , 

REPRODUCTION 

Attention  has  been  called  to  the  fact,  page  27,  that 
the  production  of  a  new  plant  does  not  begin  with  the 
germination  of  the  seed.  The  seed  itself  is  an  embryonic 
plant  possessed  of  a  certain  food  supply  and  protective 
coverings.  The  new  individual  comes  into  existence  with 
the  formation  of  the  seed  as  the  result  of  a  complex  and 
peculiar  physiological  process  known  as  fertilization.  The 
organs  of  reproduction  in  corn  have  been  discussed  in  a 
previous  chapter  and  the  process  only  will  be  considered 
here. 

212.  Fertilization.  —  In  order  that  fertilization  may 
take  place  it  is  necessary  that  the  pollen-grains  from  the 
tassel  come  in  contact  with  the  exposed  portion  of  the 
silk.  This  transfer  of  pollen  from  the  tassel  to  the  silk  is 
a  mechanical  process  which  takes  place  through  the  agency 
of  the  wind.  It  is  spoken  of  as  pollination.  For  complete 
fertilization  to  take  place,  every  silk  must  receive  at  least 
one  pollen-grain  (Fig.  26).  , 

Each  pollen-grain  consists  of  merely  two  cells,  a  smaller 
cell  within  a  larger.  After  lodging  on  the  moist  surface 
of  the  silk  the  larger  cell  germinates  and  sends  out  a 
vegetative  tube  which  grows  through  the  entire  length  of 
the  silk  or  style,  penetrates  the  ovule  and  comes  in  contact 
with  the  egg-cell  (Fig.  27).  The  smaller  cell  of  the  pollen- 
grain,  which  is  largely  nucleus,  divides  and  one  of  these 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  CORN  PLANT 


169 


nuclei  is  carried  to  the  ovule  and  fuses  with  the  nucleus 
of  the  egg-cell.  When  this  is  done,  fertilization  is  effected. 
The  fertilized  egg  then  develops  into  the  new  individual  or 
embryo  within  the  protecting  coats  of  the  seed.  The  pro- 
tecting coverings  of  the  young  seed  were,  before  fertiliza- 
tion, the  coverings  of  the  ovule.  There  is  one  silk  for  each 
ovary  and  for  any  reason,  should  a  portion  of  the  silks 


Fio.  26.  —  Illustrating  the  process  of  fertiliza- 
tion of  the  corn  flower. 

fail  to  receive  pollen-grains,  those  ovules  will  not  develop 
and  the  result  will  be  an  ear  on  which  some  grains  are 
lacking.  It  often  happens  in  arid  sections  that  dry 
hot  winds  kill  the  pollen-grains  and  prevent  the  pro- 
duction of  grain,  even  though  a  vigorous  stalk  is  pro- 
duced. 

213.  Double  fertilization.  —  The  process  of  fertiliza- 
tion described  above  .causes  the  development  of  only  the 


170        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

embryo.1  The  endosperm  of  the  grain  develops  as  the 
result  of  a  fusion  separate  from  the  one  already  considered. 
Mention  has  been  made  of  the  fact  that  the  nucleus  of 
the  pollen-grain  divides  into  two  nuclei,  only  one  of  which 
fuses  with  the  egg-cell.  The  second  male  nucleus  from 
the  pollen-grain  fuses  with  the  nucleus  of  the  embryo-sac, 
this  union  developing  into  the  endosperm  of  the  grain. 


FIG'.  27.  —  Illustrating  structure  of  corn  kernel  at  pollination:  1,  pollen- 
grains;  2,  silk;  3,  pollen  tube;  4,  kernel  husk;  5,  ovary  wall;  6,  testa; 
7,  tegmen;  8,  nucellus;  9,  embyro  sac;  10,  micropyle. 

The  fertilization  of  both  the  nucleus  of  the  egg-cell  to 
form  the  embryo  and  the  nucleus  of  the  embryo-sac  to 
form  the  endosperm  is  spoken  of  as  double,  fertilization. 
As  a  result  of  this  process,  the  endosperm  may  acquire, 
as  well  as  the  embryo,  qualities  of  the  pollen-producing 
plant,  such  as  color  or  chemical  content.  Examples  of 
this  may  be  seen  in  the  fact  that  when  pollen  from  the 

1 "  Text-book  of  Botany,"  by  Coulter,  Barnes  &  Cowles,  Vol.  1, 
pp.  267-269. 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  CORN  PLANT 


171 


black  Mexican  or  Cuzco  varieties  of  corn,  in  which  the 
aleurone  layer  of  the  grain  is  bluish-black,  is  placed  on 
the  silks  of  white  or  yellow  varieties,  many  of  the  kernels 
developing  will  show  the  bluish-black  color.  Also  if  the 
silks  of  sweet  corn  receive  pollen  from  Flint  and  Dent 
varieties  many  of  the  kernels  produced  as  a  result  of  this 
immediate  cross  will 
possess  the  character- 
istic endosperms  of 
the  parent  plants. 
Such  first-generation 
changes  in  the  charac- 
ter of  the  endosperm 
as  have  just  been  cited 
constitute  the  phe- 
nomenon known  as 
xenia. 

214.  Development 
of  the  ear.  —  When 
the  ear  has  developed 
to  the  stage  at  which 
fertilization  takes 
place,  it  consists  of  a 
spike  (the  cob)  bear- 
ing the  pistillate  flowers  in  even  numbered  rows,  and  the 
covering  or  husk.  The  development  of  the  kernels  after 
fertilization  takes  place  completes  the  formation  of  the  ear. 
The  silks  at  the  butt  of  the  ear  develop  and  are  pollinated 
first,  followed  in  succession  by  those  at  the  middle  and 
finally  at  the  tip  of  the  ear.  For  this  reason  the  basal 
kernels  develop  somewhat  in  advance  of  the  middle  and 
tip  kernels.  Each  developing  kernel  is  fed  by  a  single 
fibro-vascular  bundle  which  extends  from  the  stem  between 


FIG.  28.  —  Cross-section  of  corn  ear  look- 
ing toward  the  base:  8,  inner  surface  of 
upper  thick  glume  seen  behind  the  thin 
glume  and  palets;  S,  outer  surface  of 
lower  thick  glume;  F,  axes;  T,  denser 
portion  of  woody  zone;  H,  depression; 
B,  zone  with  fibro-vascular  bundles; 
M,  pith. 


172        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BEL!1 

the  pith  and  the  woody  portion  of  the  cob  to  the  base  of 
the  kernel.  During  the  early  or  milk-stage  of  development 
the  kernel  is  sweet  on  account  of  the  large  amount  of  sugar 
which  has  not,  as  yet,  been  transformed  into  starch.  Dur- 
ing this  early  stage  large  quantities  of  protein,  ash,  and 
oil  are  deposited  in  the  embryo.  Later,  large  quantities 
of  sugar,  much  of  which  has  been  held  in  readiness  in  the 
stalk,  are  transferred  to,  and  deposited  in  the  kernels  in  the 
form  of  starch.  This  deposit  of  starchy  material  con- 
stitutes the  larger  part  of  the  endosperm.  The  bracts 
about  the  base  of  the  ovary  become  the  chaff  of  the  ma- 
tured cob,  while  the  coverings  of  the  ovule  develop  into 
the  protecting  coverings  of  the  kernel  (Fig.  28). 


CHAPTER  XV 

ORIGIN,  CLASSIFICATION  AND  VARIETIES  OF 

CORN 

IN  the  course  of  his  early  voyage  Columbus  found  Indian 
corn  growing  on  the  island  of  Hayti  under  the  name  of 
"Mahiz,"  a  Haytian  word  from  which  the  name  "maize" 
is  derived.  It  is  generally  held  that  mahiz,  or  marisi, 
is  an  Arawak  Indian  word  of  South  American  origin. 
In  England  the  word  "corn"  is  used  in  a  general  sense  to 
signify  the  bread  grains  whereas  in  North  America  it 
applies  specifically  to  Indian  corn  or  maize. 

215.  Nativity.  —  Most  authorities  who  have  given 
special  study  to  the  geographical  origin  of  Indian  corn 
have  concluded  that  it  is  probably  native  to  Mexico/ 
Some  early  writers  have  contended  that  Indian  corn  was 
cultivated  in  Europe  previously  to  the  discovery  of  Amer- 
ica, and  therefore  questioned  its  American  origin.  The 
results  of  careful  investigation  do  not  support  this  con- 
tention. 

There  is  much  evidence  in  support  of  Harshberger's 
conclusion  that  Indian  corn  is  native,  in  all  probability, 
to  the  high  plateau  region  of  central  or  southern  Mexico, 
and  that  its  cultivation  originated  there.  Certain  plants 
that  are  relatives  botanically  to  maize,  notably  teosinte 
and  gama  grass,  are  native  to  this  region.  Also  Zea 
canina,  a  type  of  true  maize  thought  by  some  to  be  the 
progenitor  of  our  cultivated  maize  has  been  found  growing 
wild  in  this  section  of  Mexico. 

173 


174        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

The  date  at  which  maize  was  first  cultivated  in  Mexico 
is  not  clear.  Harshberger,  as  a  result  of  his  studies  of 
maize,  concluded  that  it  probably  came  into  cultivation 
in  Mexico  about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  being 
brought  across  the  Rio  Grande  about  700  A.  D.  and  reach- 
ing the  coast  of  Maine  some  time  previous  to  the  year  1000. 

In  1492,  when  Columbus  discovered  America,  maize 
was  rather  extensively  cultivated  by  the  American  In- 
dians. After  its  discovery  on  the  western  hemisphere  it 
was  rapidly  introduced  into  Europe,  Africa,  China,  and 
Asia  Minor. 

216.  Biological  origin.  —  Our  present  conclusions  re- 
garding the  biological  origin  of  maize  are  based  largely 
on  a  comparative  study  of  the  structure  of  maize  and 
its  botanically  related  forms  together  with  a  consideration 
of  the  embryonic  development  of  the  maize  plant  itself. 
Maize  belongs  to  the  family  Graminese  and  to  the  tribe 
Maydese.  The  most  important  distinguishing  feature  of 
the  tribe  Maydese  is  the  separation  of  the  staminate  flowers 
from  the  pistillate  flowers.  Two  grasses  belonging  to  this 
tribe  and  therefore  closely  related  to  maize  are  teosinte 
(Euchlaena  mexicand)  and  gama-grass  (Tripsacum  dacty- 
loides)  (Fig.  29).  Both  of  these  grasses  are  of  common 
occurrence  in  the  high  plateau  region  of  central  and  south- 
ern Mexico  —  the  region  in  which  corn  is  thought  to  have 
originated. 

Teosinte  is  a  coarse  annual  grass  growing  from  8  to  12 
feet  high,  adapted  to  a  rich  soil  and  a  long  growing  season 
of  moist  hot  weather.  As  a  rule  it  does  not  mature  seed 
north  of  Mexico.  Teosinte  is  a  branched  plant  bearing 
a  terminal  tassel  on  which  only  staminate  flowers  are 
produced,  and  lateral  branches  from  the  axils  of  the  leaves, 
each  bearing  a  terminal  tassel  on  which  only  pistillate 


ORIGIN,  CLASSIFICATION,  VARIETIES  OF  CORN  175 

flowers  are  produced.  As  the  lateral  branches  are  much 
shortened  and  are  surrounded  by  a  husk-like  structure, 
Montgomery  points  out  that  "it  is  only  a  step  in  the 


FIG.  29.  —  Illustrating  the  relationship  between 
gama-grass,  teosinte,  and  corn:  1,  gama-grass; 
2,  teosinte;  3,  corn;  4,  floral  parts  of  gama-grass: 
a,  tassel;  6,  spike  of  tassel,  bearing  staminate 
flowers  on  upper  part,  c,  staminsJte  flower;  d,  pis- 
tillate flower;  5,  floral  parts  of  teosinte;  6,  floral 
parts  of  corn. 

production  of  an  ear  of  maize,  from  teosinte  by  a  develop- 
ment of  the  central  spike  of  the  lateral  tassel  into  an  ear." 
Gama-grass  at  a  distance  bears  close  resemblance  to 
maize.    The  average  height  is  from  5  to  10  feet,  the  leaves 


176        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

and  stems  being  slenderer  than  those  of  maize.  As  in  the 
case  of  teosinte,  gama-grass  branches,  producing  a  tassel- 
like  structure  at  the  top  and  at  the  end  of  each  branch. 
Each  tassel  produces  both  staminate  and  pistillate  flowers, 
the  former  being  borne  on  the  lower  part  of  the  tassel  and 
the  latter  on  the  upper  part. 

The  general  opinion  is  that  either  teosinte,  gama-grass, 
or  some  rather  closely  related  grass  is  the  progenitor  of 
maize. 

"It  is  assumed  that  wild  maize  was  a  branched  plant 
containing  perfect  flowers  (both  carpels  and  stamens) 
on  the  terminal  tassel  and,  also,  at  the  end  of  the  branches. 
Since  the  plant  is  wind  fertilized  and  the  pollen  tends  to 
fall,  the  carpellate  flowers  in  the  terminal  tassel  would  be 
less  perfectly  pollenized  than  those  on  the  branches  below. 
The  pollen  on  the  branches  would  tend  to  fall  on  the 
ground,  thus  being  of  little  value.  The  plants  which  had 
the  greatest  development  of  carpels  on  the  branches  and 
of  stamens  in  the  terminal  tassel  would  tend  to  survive. 
As  the  end  of  a  branch  became  laden  with  a  collection  of 
grains  (ear)  the  short  branch  would  best  hold  the  ear 
from  drooping.  Thus  the  culm  of  the  branch  (now  called 
the  shank)  has  become  a  succession  of  nodes  with  shorter 
internodes.  Each  node  still  bears  the  sheath  of  the  leaf, 
the  blade  being  reduced  in  size  or  aborted.  This  collection 
of  leaf-sheaths  is  called  the  husk.  The  branch  has  been 
telescoped." l  « 

There  is  a  slight  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  character 
of  the  modification  resulting  in  the  formation  of  an  ear 
of  maize  from  the  original  tassel-like  structure.  The 
generally  accepted  theory  is  that  the  ear  is  the  result  of 
the  fusing  or  growing  together  of  four  or  more  of  the  pistil- 
1  Hunt,  "  Cereals  in  America,"  p.  145. 


ORIGIN,  CLASSIFICATION,  VARIETIES  OF  CORN  177 

late  spikes  produced  in  the  tassel  of  the  lower  branches. 
As  each  spike  is  made  up  of  a  double  row  of  spikelets, 
each  spikelet  being  two-flowered  with  the  lower  flower 
abortive,  the  result  of  such  a  fusion  would  be  an  ear  having 
distinctly  paired  rows  of  grains.  This  we  find  to  be  a 
characteristic  of  an  ear  of  maize.  The  cob  is  supposed  to 
have  been  formed  from  the  growing  together  of  the  rachi 
of  the  spikes. 

Observations  made  by  Montgomery  have  led  him  to 
think  that  "instead  of  the  ear  originating  from  the  fusion 
of  a  number  of  two-rowed  spikes,  it  developed  directly 
from  the  central  spike  of  some  tassel-like  structure  similar 
to  the  well  known  corn  tassel."  Montgomery  states 
further  "that  corn  and  teosinte  may  have  had  a  common 
origin,  and  that  in  the  process  of  evolution  the  cluster  of 
pistillate  spikes  in  teosinte  were  developed  from  the  lateral 
branches  of  a  tassel-like  structure,  while  the  corn  ear 
developed  from  the  central  spike.  It  is  probable  that  the 
progenitor  of  these  plants  was  a  large,  much-branched 
grass,  each  branch  being  terminated  by  a  tassel-like 
structure  bearing  hermaphrodite  flowers." 

It  has  been  suggested  by  Harshberger  that  our  culti- 
vated maize  is  of  hybrid  origin  because  of  the  fact  that 
fertile  hybrids  of  teosinte  and  maize  are  known  and  de- 
scribed by  Watson  as  Zea  canina.  As  a  speculative  ex- 
planation of  such  an  origin  it  is  suggested  that  the  starting 
point  was  a  "sport  of  teosinte  which  then  crossed  itself 
with  the  normal  ancestor,  producing  our  cultivated  corn." 
Zea  canina  is  found  growing  wild  in  Mexico. 

CLASSIFICATION    OF   MAIZE 

According  to  Sturtevant,  maize  may  be  classed  into  the 
following  "agricultural  species": 


178        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON+BELT 


217.  Zea  Mays  canina.  —  A  species  of  maize  found 

growing  wild  in  Mexico  and  thought  to  be  a  fourth  or  fifth 

generation  produced  by  the  crossing  of  teosinte  and  the 

black  Mexican  corn.  The  plants  of  this  species  are 
branched,  each  plant  producing  nu- 
merous small  ears  in  the  leaf  axils  of 
the  lateral  branches.  The  ears  range 
from  2  to  4  inches  in  length  and  pro- 
duce from  4  to  8 
rows  of  kernels. 

218.  Zea  Mays 
tunicata,  or  pod- 
corn. —  An  uncom- 
mon species,  char- 
acterized by  the  fact 
that  each  kernel  is 
inclosed  in  a  pod  or 
husk  and  the  ear 
inclosed-  in  husks 
(Fig.  30).  The  ker- 
nels are  rather  small 

and  occur  in  many  colors  such  as  red, 

white,  yellow,  and  variegated  as  well  as 

in  different  forms  such  as  sweet,  dent, 

and  flint.    Pod-corn   is   supposed   by 

some  to  be  a  primitive  type  bred  from 

a  wild  grass  of  Central  America  by  a 

race  of  people  called  Mayas  who  once 

inhabited  the  regions  now  known  as 

Yucatan  and  Guatemala.     This  surmise,  however,  seems 

to  lack  definite  evidence. 

219.  Zea  Mays  everata,  the  pop-corns  (Figs.  31,  32).  - 

The  varieties  of  this  species  are  characterized  by  the  fact 


FIG.  30.  —  A  small 
ear  of  the  pod- 
corn  group. 


FIG.  31.  —  An  ear  of 
White  rice  pop-corn. 


ORIGIN,  CLASSIFICATION,  VARIETIES  OF  CORN  179 

that  the  kernels  "turn  inside  out"  when  heated,  and  by  the 
small  size  of  the  kernels  and  ears.  There  is  also  an  exces- 
sive proportion  of  the  corneous  endosperm,  which  gives  the 
property  of  "  popping."  An  explanation  of  the  property 
of  " popping"  lies  in  the  fact  that  heat  causes  the  explosion 
of  contained  moisture,  and  the  endosperm  being  so  dense 
that  the  expansion  cannot  be  taken  up  on  the  inside,  the 
endosperm  is  caused  to  evert  about  the  embryo  and 
hull,  forming  a  white  fluffy  mass.  In  kernels  possessing 


FIG.  32.  —  An  ear  of  White  Pearl  pop-corn. 

an  excess  of  white  endosperm,  the  moisture  in  the  corneous 
portion  explodes  without  everting  the  endosperm. 

Although  many  varieties  of  pop-corn  exist  they  easily 
fall  into  two  groups,  namely,  rice  pop-corn,  in  which  the 
kernels  are  pointed  at  the  top,  and  pearl  pop-corn,  in  which 
the  kernels  are  rounded  at  the  top  much  as  in  flint  corn. 
Ears  of  pop-corn  vary  in  length  from  l}/2  or  2  inches  in 
Tom  Thumb  to  6  or  7  inches  in  certain  varieties  of  the 
pearl  group. 

220.  Zea  Mays  indurata,  the  flint  corns  (Fig.  33).  - 
Characterized  by  the  inclosure  of  the  starchy  endosperm 
in  a  corneous  endosperm.  This  outer  arrangement  of  the 
hard  part  of  the  endosperm  prevents  denting,  although 
a  slight  dent  is  sometimes  visible  owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
layer  of  corneous  endosperm  is  thin  on  the  top  of  the 


180        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


kernel.  Plants  of  flint  corn 
vary  in  height  from  4  to  9  feet. 
The  ears  are  from  6  to  14 
inches  long  with  from  8  to  16 
rows  of  kernels,  8  rows  being 
the  most  common.  The  kernels 
of  most  varieties  are  either 
white  or  golden  orange  in  color, 
hard,  smooth  and  somewhat 
oval  shaped.  Flint  varieties 
are  adapted  to  regions  with 
short  growing  seasons  in  which 
the  dent  varieties  will  not  ma- 
ture. 

221.  Zea  Mays  indentata, 
the  dent  corns  (Fig.  34).- 
In  this  group  the  corneous  en- 
dosperm occurs  at  the  sides  of 
the  kernel,  the  starchy  reserve 
food  extending  to  the  summit. 
As  the  kernel  matures  the  soft 
starchy  part  dries  and  shrinks, 
forming  the  characteristic  in- 
dentation in  the  top  of  the  ker- 
nel. In  the  flint  corns  'the 
occurrence  of  the  corneous  en- 
dosperm over  the  top  of  the 
kernel,  as  well  as  at  the  sides, 
prevents  the  formation  of  an 
indentation.  In  dent  corns  the 

Plant  VarieS    in    hei^ht    fr°m    5 

to  18  feet;  the  ears  are  from 
6  to  12  inches  long,  having  from  8  to  24  rows  of  kernels 


FIG.  33.  —  A  good  ear  of  the 

variety' 


ORIGIN,  CLASSIFICATION,  VARIETIES  OF  CORN  181 

to  an  ear,  14  to  18  being  the  most  common.  This  is  the 
type  commonly  cultivated  throughout  the  cotton-belt  and 
in  fact  throughout  the  entire  United  States  excepting 
in  the  extreme  northeastern  section  where  the  short 
growing  season  makes  necessary  the  growth  of  flint 
corns. 

222.  Zea  Mays  amylacea,  the  soft  corns.  —  Charac- 
terized by  the  absence  of  corneous  material  in  the  endo- 
sperm. The  ear  and  kernels  are  somewhat  similar  in  shape 
to  the  flint  corns.  There  is  no  indentation.  The  soft 
corns  seem  to  prefer  the  warm  dry  climates,  being  grown 


FIG.  34.  —  A  good  ear  of  dent  corn;  variety,  Woodburn  White  dent. 

largely  in  Mexico  and  adjacent  regions.  This  type  was 
extensively  grown  by  the  North  American  Indians,  be- 
cause it  was  more  easily  crushed  between  two  rocks  and 
thus  made  into  flour. 

223.  Zea  Mays  saccharata,  the  sweet  corns  (Fig.  35). 
—  Characterized  by  the  translucent,  horny  appearance  of 
the  kernels  and  their  wrinkled,  shriveled  condition.  It  is 
thought  that  the  latter  character  is  the  result  of  the  rapid 
conversion  of  the  starch  into  sugar.  In  outline  the  grains 
are  usually  broadly  wedge-shaped  with  rounded  summit. 
Sweet  corn  is  well  known  as  a  garden  crop  and  in  some 
sections  of  the  United  States  it  furnishes  the  basis  of 


182        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

large  canning  industries,  the  canned  product  being  shipped 
to  all  parts  of  the  world.  Most  varieties  of  this  type  will 
mature  within  from  70  to  100  days. 

224.  Zea  Mays  amylea-saccharata,  a  starchy  sweet 
corn.    Its  chief  characteristic  is  that  the  lower  half  of 
the  kernel  is  starchy  and  the  upper  half  horny  and  trans- 
lucent.    This  type  is  not  common. 

225.  Zea  Mays  japonica.  —  A  corn  sometimes  culti- 
vated for  ornamental  purposes,  the  leaves  being  striped, 


FIG.  35.  —  An  ear  of  the  sweet  corn  group. 

green  and  white.    The  grains  are  small,  resembling  pop- 
corn or  the  small  flint  types. 

226.  Zea  Mays  hirta.  —  This  corn  is  found  mostly 
in  South  America  and  is  characterized  by  the  hairy  nature 
of  the  leaves  and  sheaths. 

227.  Varieties.  —  Several  hundred  distinct  varieties  of 
corn  are  now  in  existence.    So  far  as  known  to  the  author, 
no  complete  catalogue  of  corn  varieties  has  been  prepared 
within   recent   years.     Sturtevant,   in    1898,    listed   507 
named  varieties  and  163  synonyms.    Of  these  507  varieties 
Sturtevant  classed  323  as  dent  corn,  69  as  flint  corn,  63 
as  sweet  corn,  27  as  soft  corn  and  25  as  pop-corn.    Many 
varieties  have  come  into  existence  since  the  publication 
of  SturtevamVs  classification. 

The  nomenclature  of  corn  varieties,  especially  in  the 


ORIGIN,  CLASSIFICATION,  VARIETIES  OF  CORN  183 


cotton-belt  states,  is  very  unsatisfactory.  The  indiffer- 
ence of  farmers  toward  the  improvement  of  varieties  to- 
gether with  the  natural  tendency  of  different  varieties  to 
hybridize  when  grown  in  close  proximity  to  each  other, 
the  mixing  of  names  by.  seed  dealers  and  the  modification 
of  varieties  by  environment  have  somewhat  minimized 
the  significance  that  can  be  attached  to  varietal  names. 

Extensive  variety  tests  conducted  by  the  southern 
experiment  stations  have  shown  conclusively  that  no  one 
variety  is  best  suited  to  all  sections  of  the  cotton-belt. 
In  the  following  list  are  given  the  names  of  several  leading 
varieties  of  corn  for  each  cotton-belt  state,  the  names  of 
these  varieties  having  been  secured  from  the  experiment 
station  director  or  agronomist  in  each  case: 


STATE 

VARIETY 

COLOR  OF  GRAIN 

Alabama  

Mosby 

W 

Marlboro 

W 

Jackson  Red  Cob 

W 

Tennessee  Red  Cob 

W 

Hasting's  Prolific 

W 

Davis  Poor  Land 

W 

Arkansas  

Johnson  County  White 

W 

Southern  Beauty 

W 

Hildreth  Yellow  Dent 

Y 

Boone  County  White 

W 

Golden  Beauty 

Y 

Georgia  1  

Marlboro 

W 

Sanders 

W 

Cocke's  Prolific 

W 

k 

Boone  County  White 

W 

Mosby 

W 

Louisiana 

Yellow  Creole 

Y 

1  Taken  from  Duggar's  "  Southern  Field  Crops,"  p.  120. 


184        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

i 


STATE 

VARIETY 

COLOR  OF  GRAIN 

(La.  Corn  Growers' 
Assoc.  1915) 

Mississippi 

Stewart's  Yel.  Dent 
Calhoun  Red  Cob 
Stewart's  White  Shoepeg 
Mosby's  Prolific 
Hasting's  Prolific 
Gandy's  Prolific 
Sentell's  White  Dent 
Cocke's  Prolific 

Y 

YandW 
W 
W 
W 
W 
W 
W 

North  Carolina  

Mosby 
North  Car.  Prolific 
Hasting's  Prolific 
Davis'  Poor  Land 
Tennessee  Red  Cob 
Biggs  Seven  Ear 

W 
W 
W 
W 
W 
W 

South  Carolina 

Weekley's  Improved 
Goodman's  Prolific 
Sanders'  Improved 
Cocke's  Prolific 
Marlboro 

W 
W 
W 
W 
W 

Tennessee  

Batt's  Prolific 
Williamson 
Hasting's  Prolific 
Mosby 
Brunson 
Simons  86% 
Pee  Dee 
Hickory  King 

W 
W 
W 
W 
W 
W 
W 
W 

Texas 

Lewis  Prolific 
Albemarle  Prolific 
Neal's  Paymaster 
Webb's  Watson 
Huffman 
Reid's  Yellow  Dent 
Thomas  l 

W 
W 
W 
W 
W 
Y 
W 

Mosby  l 
Hastings  l 

W 
W 

1  Prolific  corns  for  South  and  East  Texas. 


ORIGIN,  CLASSIFICATION,  VARIETIES  OF  CORN  185 


STATE 

VARIETY 

COLOR  OF  GRAIN 

Texas 

Surcropper 

W 

Strawberry 

Rand  W 

Chisolm 

W 

Yellow  Dent 

Y 

Virginia  

Boone  County  White 

W 

Collier's  Excelsior 

W 

Johnson  County  White 

W 

Learning 

Y 

Reid's  Yellow  Pent 

Y 

Virginia  Golden  Beauty 

Y 

228.  Discussion  of  varieties.  —  Most  of  the  leading 
varieties  of  corn  grown  in  the  cotton-belt  belong  to  the 
prolific  type,  producing  from  175  to  200,  or  more,  ears 
for  each  hundred  plants.  The  ears  are  usually  small, 
owing  to  the  small  size  of  the  cob,  and  the  kernels  are 
usually  rather  long  and  slender.  Some  of  the  important 
prolific  varieties  included  in  the  above  list  are  as  follows: 


Mosby 

Hasting's  Prolific 
Cocke's  Prolific 
Marlboro 


Sanders  Improved 

Batt's 

Weekley's  Improved 

Lewis  Prolific 


Albemarle  Prolific 
Biggs'  Seven  Ear 
Davis'  Poor  Land 
Neal's  Paymaster 


Southern  Beauty  is  a  semi-prolific  variety. 
The  important  one-eared  varieties  are: 


Tennessee  Red  Cob 
Reid's  Yellow  Dent 
Golden  Beauty 
Boone  County  White 
Strawberry 


Jackson  Red  Cob 
Hildreth's  Yellow  Dent 
Calhoun  Red  Cob 
Huffman 


Almost  all  varieties  are  valuable  for  silage  making. 
The  following  have  been  especially  recommended  for  this 
purpose : 


186        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

Cocke's  Prolific  Hildreth  Yellow  Dent 

Weekley's  Improved  Goodman's  Prolific 

Of  the  varieties  of  sweet  corn  grown  in  the  cotton-belt 
the  following  are  most  important: 

Sto well's  Evergreen        .'  Country  Gentleman 

Adams's  Extra  Early  Black  Mexican  Sweet  Corn. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
THE  BREEDING  OF  CORN 

UNDER  any  given  set  of  conditions  the  yield  of  corn  is 
conditioned  on  two  sets  of  forces.  The  first  and  most 
commonly  recognized  set  of  forces  is  external  to  the  plant 
and  consists  of  the  plant's  environment.  The  second  set 
resides  within  the  plant  itself  and  is  commonly  expressed 
as  heredity. 

Certain  factors  of  environment,  such  as  temperature, 
light  and  rainfall,  are  beyond  our  control.  Others,  such  as 
the  ravages  of  insect  enemies  and  parasitic  fungi  are  par- 
tially controllable;  whereas  tillage  and  the  supplying  of 
food  to  the  plant  are  almost  wholly  under  control.  The 
two  last  named  factors  have  received  widespread  atten- 
tion from  corn  growers.  The  factors  of  heredity  have  been 
almost  wholly  disregarded.  The  possibility  of  improving 
corn  by  breeding  has  long  been  recognized,  and  in  recent 
years  many  evidences  of  such  improvement  have  been 
furnished  in  this  country  by  the  agricultural  experiment 
stations,  state  departments  of  agriculture,  the  national 
Department  of  Agriculture  and  other  agencies,  as  well  as 
by  many  growers  of  commercial  seed. 

229.  The  significance  of  type  in  corn  breeding.  — 
Corn  breeders  in  the  past  have  laid  much  emphasis  on  the 
value  of  selecting  seed  with  a  definite  type  of  plant  in  view. 
For  example,  directions  for  selecting  are  often  given  with 
reference  to  the  type  of  ear  as  regards  its  length  and  cir- 
cumference as  well  as  depth  and  shape  of  kernels.  Also 

187 


188        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


the  height  of  plant,  height  at  which  ear  is  borne,  position 
of  ear,  and  the  like,  are  usually  given  careful  consideration 

in  breeding  corn.  It 
nevertheless  remains 
that  yield  is  the 
primary  object  in  corn 
breeding,  and  if  each 
year  seed  is  carefully 
selected  and  propa- 
gated from  the  highest 
yielding  plants  or 
progeny  rows  as  the 
case  may  be,  all  other 
characters  of  the  plant 
will  naturally  adjust 
themselves  under  the 
existing  conditions  in 
such  a  way  that  ulti- 
mately the  most  pro- 
ductive type  of  plant 
will  follow.  That  no 
visible  characters  of  the 
corn  ear  are  indicative 
of  high  yielding  power 
has  been  demonstrated 
many  times  by  breed- 
ers and  this  fact  is 
clearly  summarized  by 
Hartley  as  follows: 
"A  careful  tabulation  of  yields  as  compared  with  other 
ear  characters  covering  six  years'  work  with  four  varie- 
ties, embracing  in  all  more  than  1000  ear-to-row  tests  of 
production,  indicates  that  no  visible  characters  of  appar- 


FIG.  36.  —  Showing  the  average  angle  of 
declination  of  corn  ears  after  five 
generations  of  breeding  for  erect  ears. 


THE  BREEDING  OF  CORN 


189 


ently   good    seed   ears  are   indicative   of   high   yielding 
power." 

The  Illinois  experiments  in  breeding  for  high-ear  and 
low-ear  types  demon- 
strate that  the  height 
at  which  the  ear  is 
borne  on  the  plant 
bears  no  definite  rela- 
tion to  yield,  the  same 
conclusion  being  war- 
ranted when  the  angle 
of  the  ear  was  con- 
sidered. 

Selection  to  modify 
certain  characters  of 
the  plant,  even  though 
yield  is  not  affected,  is 
often  justified.  For 
example,  in  the  South 
many  varieties  of  corn 
have  a  tendency  to 
bear  the  ears  quite 
high  on  the  stalk  and 
in  an  upright  position. 
Although  neither  of 
these  characters  ma- 
terially affects  yield, 
seed  should  be  selected 
with  the  idea  of  cor- 
recting these  defects,  as 


FIG.  37.  —  Showing  the  average  angle  of 
declination  of  corn  ears  after  five  gen- 
erations of  breeding  for  declining  ears. 


in  the  one  case  ease  of  harvesting  is  facilitated  and 
in  the  other  the  quality  of  the  grain  is  improved, 
from  the  fact  that  a  drooping  ear  sheds  water  bet- 


190        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

ter  than  one  borne   in   an   upright   position  (Figs.   36, 
37). 

The  type  assumed  by  high-yielding  strains  of  corn  varies 
in  different  regions.  Therefore  the  ideal  type  for  one  set 
of  conditions  will  vary  from  that  growing  under  conditions 
markedly  different.  The  acclimated  high-yielding  strains 
have  adjusted  themselves  to  their  surroundings,  and  corn 
breeders  should  select  their  seed  from  typical  plants  that 
are  in  harmony  with  natural  conditions. 

230.  Defects  in  southern  varieties.  —  The  most  serious 
defect  possessed  by  the  bulk  of  the  corn  planted  in  the 
south  is  the  lack  of  those  hereditary  qualities  such  as  vigor 
and  prolificacy  that  make  for  higher  yield.    In  addition  to 
these  there  are  a  number  of  qualities  which  may  or  may 
not  affect  yield,  but  which,  because  of  their  relation  to  the 
ease  of  harvesting,  the  ability  of  the  plants  to  resist  storm, 
or  the  quality  of  the  grain  produced,  should  receive  careful 
attention  by  corn  growers.    The  most  important  of  these 
qualities  are:   (1)   lower  position  of  ear  on  the  plant; 
(2)  strength,  or  power  of  the  plant  to  stand  up;  (3)  tend- 
ency for  the  mature  ears  to  turn  downward;  (4)  more  com- 
plete covering  of  the  tip  by  shucks;  (5)  a  decrease  in  the 
size  of  the  plant  in  some  varieties.    All  of  the  above  qual- 
ities, including  vigor  and  prolificacy,  have  been  shown  to 
be  hereditary  and  are  therefore  under  the  control  of  the 
corn  breeder. 

231.  Barren  plants.  —  The  tendency  in  corn  to  pro- 
duce stalks  without  ears  is  generally  held  to  be  hereditary, 
although  it  is  to  a  large  degree  dependent  on  climatic  condi- 
tions. That  this  tendency  in  corn  is  to  an  extent  hereditary 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  seed  corn  that  has  been  fertilized 
by  the  pollen  from  barren  stalks  often  gives  rise  to  an  in- 
creased number  of  useless  plants.  De  Vries  makes  reference 


THE  BREEDING  OF  CORN  191 

to  the  fact  that  in  Illinois  on  farms  where  the  number  of 
barren  plants  has  reached  as  high  as  about  60  per  cent,  it 
has  been  reduced  by  five  years  of  selection  to  about  ten  or 
fifteen  per  cent.  De  Vries  also  finds  that  "some  ears  pro- 
duce more  than  twelve  times  as  many  barren  stalks  as 
others."  Hartley  found  that  the  destruction  of  barren 
stalks  in  the  field  from  which  seed  was  saved  reduced  the 
percentage  of  barren  stalks  in  the  succeeding  crop  from 
8.11  to  3.43.  While  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that 
barren  stalks  be  destroyed  before  they  produce  pollen,  it 
is  highly  probable  that  this  is  only  a  partial  remedy. 
Strains  or  varieties  of  corn  that  are  marked  in  this  defi- 
ciency should  be  discarded  as  a  whole  as  in  such  cases  the 
propensity  to  barrenness  is  in  all  probability  possessed  by 
the  fertile  plants  as  well  as  by  the  infertile.  It  is  often 
difficult  to  detect  barren  stalks  before  pollen  is  produced 
and  for  this  reason  all  poor  stalks  in  the  seed  plot  should 
be  destroyed  before  the  pollen  is  matured. 

232.  Tendency  to  sucker.  —  The  removal  of  suckers 
from  the  corn  plant  is  common  with  farmers  throughout 
the  southern  states,  the  assumption  being  that  they  sap 
the  energies  of  the  main  plant  by  robbing  it  of  food  and 
water  without  giving  a  compensating  return  in  grain. 
The  bulk  of  the  evidence  is  against  this  practice.  Williams, 
of  the  North  Carolina  Station,  as  a  result  of  three  years' 
work  with  more  than  fifty  varieties  summarizes  his  work 
as  follows: 

"By  assigning  a  value  of  80  cents  a  bushel  for  grain  and 
$8.00  a  ton  for  stover,  it  has  been  found  that,  on  an  average 
of  three  years'  results  on  the  better  grade  of  land,  there 
was  a  diminishing  by  17.7  per  cent  of  the  combined  value 
of  the  grain  and  stover  by  the  removal  of  suckers  from  the 
stalks." 


192        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


The  results  of  two  years'  work  by  the  Mississippi 
Experiment  Station  on  the  value  of  suckering  corn  are 
shown  below: 

TABLE  10.  SHOWING  RESULTS  OF  Two  YEARS'  SUCKERING  CORN 
1910  AND  1911 


WHEN  SUCKERED 

,1910 

1911 

Cost  of 
labor  for 
suckering 
one  acre 

Yield  in 
bushels 
per  acre 

Cost  of 
labor  for 
suckering 
one  acre 

Yield  in 
bushels 
per  acre 

Suckered  4  feet  high 
Suckered  6  feet  high 
Unsuckered  

$.96 
.96 

29.5 
29.4 
37.8 

$1.00 
1.00 

38.5 
38.0 
30.5 

Ricks,  in  discussing  these  results,  says:  "Pulling  the  suck- 
ers from  corn  has  never  given  us  any  increased  yields.  The 
expense  in  doing  this  work  should  be  put  into  better  and 
more  frequent  cultivations." 

233.  Methods  of  improving  corn.  —  Three  methods 
are  employed  in  the  improvement  of  corn.  They  are 
(1)  selection,  including  both  mass  selection  and  pedigree 
selection,  (2)  hybridization  followed  by  selection,  and 
(3)  acclimatization.  The  method  of  improving  corn  by 
hybridization  is  too  technical  and  expensive  to  be  of  gen- 
eral value  to  the  farmer.  This  work  should  be  left  for  the 
skilled  breeder,  the  farmer  giving  his  attention  to  the  im- 
provement of  his  corn  by  selection. 

.      |"   : 

SELECTION 

Systematic  selection  is  the  most  important  factor  in  the 
improvement  of  corn.  The  success  of  this  method  depends 
upon  the  ability  of  the  breeder  to  recognize  the  most 


THE  BREEDING  OF  CORN  193 

productive  plants  and  to  propagate  them  without  the  in- 
termixture of  blood  from  inferior  sorts. 

234.  Start  with  the  best  variety.  —  The  initial  step 
in  the  improvement  of  corn  is  the  selection  of  the  best 
variety  for  the  existing  conditions.    It  is  a  waste  of  time 
and  money  to  attempt  the  breeding  or  improvement  of 
varieties  not  well  adapted  to  the  soil  or  climate.     The 
value  of  any  variety  is  conditioned  on  its  yield,  quality, 
and  adaptation.    The  adaptation  of  the  variety  is  really 
the  deciding  factor  that  determines  whether  it  may  be 
successfully  grown  in  any  locality.     The  work  of  the 
agricultural  experiment  stations  has  demonstrated  beyond 
question  that   corn  varieties  differ  as  regards  climatic 
adaptation  and  therefore  differ  in  point  of  yield.     Some 
tests  reported  by  the  Alabama  Station  at  Auburn  a  few 
years  ago  showed  differences  in  the  yield  of  corn  varieties 
as  high  as  160  per  cent.    The  best  variety  can  be  selected 
only  as  a  result  of  a  carefully  conducted  variety  test. 

235.  Mass  selection.  —  The  simplest  method  of  im- 
proving corn  is  by  mass  selection.    In  following  this  method 
the  grower  selects  from  the  field  a  large  number  of  ears 
from  plants  that  conform  nearest  to  the  ideal  type.    The 
next  year  all  of  this  selected  seed  is  mixed  and  planted. 
From  the  crop  thus  produced  the  best  individuals  are 
again  selected,  the  seed  mixed  and  planted  the  succeeding 
year.     This  method  of  selection  is  followed  year  after 
year.    Mass  selection  does  not  recognize  a  difference  be- 
tween the  individuals  selected  as  regards  their  ability  to 
produce,  as  by  this  method   a  performance  record  for 
single  plants,   such  as  is  kept  in  pedigree  selection,  is 
impossible. 

236.  Value  of  mass  selection.  —  Rapid  improvement 
by  mass  selection  is  not  possible.    However,  if  the  breeder 


194        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

keeps  clearly  in  mind  a  mental  picture  of  his  ideal  type, 
and  in  making  his  selections  from  year  to  year  does  not 
deviate  from  this  type,  there  is  no  question  but  that  a 
gradual  improvement  can  be  accomplished.  The  fact 
that  many  of  our  oldest  and  best  varieties  of  corn  have 
been  produced  by  this  method  is  evidence  of  its  value 
when  properly  conducted.  For  example,  in  1825,  J.  L. 
Learning,  of  Wilmington,  Ohio,  began  selecting  the  best 
ears  of  his  field  for  his  seed  corn.  He  mixed  the  seed  and 
planted  it  with  no  attempt  to  study  the  progeny  of  individ- 
ual ears.  By  this  method  he  finally  improved  his  strain 
to  the  degree  that  it  became  widely  known  and  was  im- 
ported into  Illinois.  There  the  selection  was  continued  by 
the  same  method  followed  by  Learning.  At  present,  the 
Learning  variety  is  considered  one  of  the  best  yielding 
sorts  for  that  state.  James  Riley,  of  Thorntown,  Indiana, 
working  with  the  ordinary  white  corn  of  Indiana,  selected 
seed  with  the  idea  of  diminishing  the  number  of  barren 
stalks  and  of  ears  of  minor  value  in  his  field.  The  result 
of  his  work  is  the  famous  Boone  County  White,  probably 
the  most  popular  variety  of  corn  in  Indiana  and  Illinois. 
Reid's  Yellow  Dent,  a  variety  widely  grown  in  the  corn 
belt,  was  produced  by  mass  selection.  The  objection  to 
this  method  is  the  slowness  with  which  improvement  is 
accomplished. 

237.  Pedigree  selection.  —  It  has  been  found  that 
two  ears  of  corn  of  similar  appearance,  and  coming  from 
plants  of  apparently  equal  value,  will  not  necessarily 
produce  progeny  of  equal  value.  It  often  happens  that 
one  ear  will  produce  from  20  to  40  per  cent  more  than  the 
other  when  used  as  seed.  In  other  words,  the  hereditary 
qualities  of  the  two  ears  may  differ  markedly,  and  since 
the  aim  of  corn  breeding  is  the  improvement  of  hereditary 


THE  BREEDING  OF  CORN  195 

qualities,  the  most  rapid  improvement  can  be  accom- 
plished only  when  the  selection  is  based  on  a  performance 
record  of  the  different  individuals.  An  ear  of  corn  may  be 
of  excellent  shape  and  size,  with  straight  rows  and  perfect 
butt  and  tip,  with  well-shaped  kernels  of  the  most  desir- 
able structure,  but  such  an  ear  is  of  little  value  as  seed 
corn  unless  it  possesses  the  power  of  transmitting  these 
qualities  to  its  progeny.  Pedigree  selection  differs  from 
mass  selection  in  that  after  the  first  mother  ears  are  se- 
lected a  record  is  kept  on  the  performance  of  each  ear  or 
its  progeny.  It  distinguishes  between  those  plants  that 
were  good  because  of  favorable  environment  and  those 
that  were  good  because  of  inherent  productiveness.  The 
inherent  productiveness  of  an  ear  can  be  ascertained  by 
no  other  means  than  pedigree  selection,  or  the  separate 
culture  and  exact  comparative  trial  of  the  generation 
grown  from  its  kernels. 

238.  The  initial  choice  of  ears  in  the  fields.  —  The 
foundation  stock  should  be  selected  in  the  field.  In  the 
cotton-belt  yield  should  be  the  primary  consideration 
in  the  making  of  this  selection.  Early  in  the  fall  shortly 
before  the  time  of  harvesting,  the  breeder  should  go 
through  his  fields  and  mark  the  stalks  of  superior  quality. 
If  it  is  desired  to  correct  some  defect  of  the  plant,  or  ear, 
such  as  the  height  of  ear  on  stalk  or  the  angle  of  the  ear, 
these  points  should  be  kept  in  mind,  and  the  selections 
made  accordingly;  but  at  no  time  should  yield  be  sacrificed 
for  other  qualities.  It  is  not  necessary  to  adhere  closely 
to  one  type  of  ear.  In  fact  several  types  may  be  selected 
provided  they  are  sound  and  well  matured  and  come  from 
high  yielding  plants.  It  is  usually  advisable  to  select 
from  plants  that  produce  more  than  one  ear.  This  is 
especially  true  in  the  breeding  of  the  prolific  varieties. 


196        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT  , 

At  least  100  ears  should  be  selected.    A  still  greater  number 
will  be  better  as  exceptional  ears  are  rather  scarce. 

239.  Selecting  the  breeding  plot.  —  The  comparative 
trial  of  the  progeny  of  the  ears  selected  in  the  field  is  made 
on  a  selected  plot,  usually  called  the  breeding  plot.    As 
the  value  of  this  test  depends  on  being  able  to  make  an 
accurate  comparison  of  the  yields  from  the  different  ears, 
it  is  extremely  important  that  the  plot  selected  be  of  as 
uniform    productiveness    throughout    as    possible.      The 
soil  need  not  be  rich,  but  should  be  of  average  productive- 
ness, and  if  possible  should  be  sufficiently  isolated  to  pre- 
vent the  selected  seed  from  becoming  contaminated  by 
pollen  from  unbred  varieties.  As  pollen  is  often  carried  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  by  the  wind,  the  isolation  of  the  breeding 
plot  is  often  impossible,  and  other  precautions,  mentioned 
in  the  succeeding  paragraph,  must  be  resorted  to.     The 
breeding  plot  should  be  sufficiently  large  to  admit  of 
planting  at  least  100  rows  of  at  least  400  hills  in  length. 

240.  Second  year.  —  By  means   of   a   marker   or   a 
small  plow  the  breeding  plot  should  be  laid  off  in  checks 
3J^  feet  apart.    Next,  the  kernels  of  each  selected  ear  are 
planted  in  groups,  the  first  row  being  planted  from  the 
kernels  of  one  ear,  the  second  row  containing  the  progeny 
of  a  second  ear  and  so  on  until  the  100  ears  are  planted. 
The  usual  method  is  to  carry  the  ear,  and  shell  off  the 
grains  as  needed.    Three  or  four  grains  should  be  planted 
in  each  hill  to  insure  a  stand.    Later  the  corn  should  be 
thinned  to  one  stalk  in  a  hill. 

As  it  is  practically  impossible  to  secure  an  absolutely 
uniform  plot  of  land  for  this  work,  it  is  well  to  omit  every 
fifth  row  in  planting  the  select  ears,  these  rows  to  be  im- 
mediately planted  with  a  uniform  lot  of  corn.  The  yield 
of  these  rows  that  are  planted  from  uniform  seed  will 


THE  BREEDING  OF  CORN  197 

serve  as  a  check  against  the  inequalities  in  the  productive- 
ness of  the  soil  comprising  the  breeding  plot. 

Where  isolation  is  impossible,  the  breeding  plot  should 
be  surrounded  by  three  or  four  rows  planted  with  seed  from 
the  selected  ears  which  remain  after  the  breeding  plot  has 
been  planted.  Conditions  will  be  made  still  more  ideal 
if  this  breeding  plot  is  situated  in  the  midst  of  a  large 
field  of  a  selected  strain  of  corn  of  the  same  variety.  This 
latter  precaution  will  be  impossible  during  the  first  season 
of  the  breeding,  but  from  the  third  year  it  will  always  be 
practicable.  Such  an  arrangement  prevents  the  seed 
plot  from  being  contaminated  by  pollen  from  unbred 
sorts. 

241.  Cultivation.  —  Ordinary    cultivation    should    be 
given  the  breeding  plot,  care  being  exercised  to  see  that 
all  rows  are  treated  alike.    It  must  be  remembered  that 
the  results  of  pedigree  selection  will  be  meaningless  unless 
uniform  conditions  are  maintained  throughout  the  entire" 
breeding  plot. 

242.  Detasseling.  —  In    breeding    corn    by    pedigree 
selection,  the  conditions  are  such  as  to  favor  inbreeding 
and  close  breeding,  either  of  which  is  likely  to  decrease 
the  vigor  of  the  plant.     To  avoid  this  the  practice  of 
detasseling  every  other  row  or  the  alternate  half  of  every 
row  and  saving  seed  only  from  the  best  detasseled  rows 
is  recommended.     The  method   of  detasseling   consists 
merely  in  pulling  the  tassels  out  before  pollen  is  produced, 
and  bears  no  injury  to  the  plant.    The  field  must  be  gone 
over  at  least  three  times.    In  addition  to  pulling  the  tassels 
from  the  plants  in  the  rows  that  are  to  furnish  the  seed,  it 
is  important  that  all  inferior  plants  in  the  sire  rows  be 
detasseled.      The   methods   employing   the   principle   of 
detasseling    to    avoid  jnbreeding    vary    somewhat    with 


198        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

different  breeders.      The  most  important   methods  fol- 
low: 

(1)  Each  year  alternate  rows  in  the  breeding  plot  are 
detasseled  and  seed  yields  ascertained  from  these  rows 
only.    This  is  the  method  in  most  common  use. 

(2)  The  first  year  only  a  part  of  each  ear  is  used  in  plant- 
ing the  breeding  plot  and  no  detasseling  is  done.     By 
harvesting  and  weighing  the  grain  from  each  row  the 
breeder  ascertains  which  were  the  most  productive  ears 
that  were  used  in  the  planting  of  the  breeding  plot.    The 
next  season  the  remnants  of  the  best  ears  only  are  planted 
in  progeny  rows,  a  number  of  which  are  detasseled.    The 
advantage  sought  by  this  method  is  the  elimination  of 
the  poor-yielding  strains  so  that  all  fertilization  will  come 
from  productive  strains.    The  method  is  continued  year 
after  year,  select  ears  being  used  from  the  breeding  plot 
or  the  general  crop  for  the  ear-row  test. 

Hugo  de  Vries  stresses  the  importance  of  the  plot  system 
in  corn  breeding  as  a  means  of  maintaining  the  purity 
of  select  strains.  His  views  are  given  in  the  following 
quotation:  "In  the  system  of  breeding  in  plots,  the  prog- 
eny of  each  selected  ear  constitutes  a  square  by  itself, 
and  thus  at  least  for  the  central  stalks  a  high  degree  of 
pure  fertilization  by  the  other  members  of  the  same  family 
is  insured.  The  observed  fact  of  the  high  degree  of  in- 
dividuality of  each  family,  derived  from  one  single  ear, 
seems  to  point  out  the  desirability  of  this  plot  system  for 
the  first  year  of  trial  on  the  breeding  plot,  even  if  the  row 
system  should  be  kept  as  the  most  convenient  for  the 
subsequent  years  of  selection."  1 

243.  Harvesting.  —  Late  in  the  fall  when  the  corn 
from  all  of  the  progeny  rows  has  become  thoroughly 
1  Hugo  de  Vries,  "  Plant  Breeding,"  p.  137. 


THE  BREEDING  OF  CORN  199 

mature  the  detasseled  rows  should  be  harvested  separately 
and  the  corn  from  each  row  weighed.  From  the  ten  or 
twelve  highest  yielding  rows,  100  of  the  best  ears  should 
be  selected  for  planting  the  breeding  plot  next  year.  The 
remainder  of  the  seed  from  the  best  yielding  rows  should 
be  used  for  planting  an  increase  plot  or  for  planting  the 
general  crop. 

244.  Third    year.  —  The    breeding    plot    should    be 
planted  as  before  with  the  best  selected  100  ears;  the 


FIG.  38.  —  Showing  effect  of  five  generations  of  breeding  for  high  ears 
and  low  ears.  The  white  tape  marks  the  position  of  the  ears  on  the 
_*«it«_ 


stalks. 

alternate  rows  should  be  detasseled  and  seed  saved  again 
from  the  best  detasseled  rows.  The  remainder  of  the 
selected  seed  should  be  used  for  planting  an  increase 
plot  provided  it  is  not  sufficient  for  planting  the  gen- 
eral crop.  The  corn  produced  on  the  increase  plot 
should  be  used  for  planting  the  general  crop  the  fourth 
year. 

One  should  continue  this  system  of  breeding,  maintain- 
ing each  year  the  breeding  plot,  the  increase  plot,  and  the 
general  crop  which  is  always  planted  from  the  improved 
seed  grown  on  the  increase  plot.  With  this  treatment  the 


200        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


corn  should  not  only  maintain  its  excellence,  but  should 
improve  rapidly  from  year  to  year. 

245.  Breeding  for  high  and  low  ears  (Fig.  38) .  —  In 
1902  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station  began  selecting  two 
strains  of  Learning  corn,  one  with  ears  borne  high  on  the 
stalk  and  the  other  with  ears  borne  low.  After  six  years  of 
pedigree  breeding,  the  basis  of  selection  being  the  height 
of  the  ear,  the  following  results  were  obtained: 

TABLE   11.   SHOWING  AVERAGES  OP  CROPS  PRODUCED   IN  CORN 
BREEDING,  FOR  HIGH  EARS  AND  FOR  Low  EARS  l 


YEAR 

HEIGHT  OF  EAR 

HEIGHT  OF  PLANT 

High-ear  Plot 
Inches 

Low-ear  Plot 
Inches 

High-ear  Plot 
Inches 

Low-ear  Plot 
Inches 

1903 

56.4 

'  42.8 

113.9 

102.5 

1904 

50.3 

38.3 

106.2 

97.4 

1905 

63.3 

41.6 

128.4 

106.5 

1906 

56.6 

25.5 

116.3 

86.0 

1907 

72.4 

33.2 

130.4 

99.7 

1908 

57.3 

23.1 

114.0 

79.3 

246.  Breeding  for  composition.  —  In  1896,  Hopkins, 
of  the  University  of  Illinois,  began  the  breeding  of  corn 
with  the  idea  of  changing  its  chemical  content.  Seed  of 
White  Illinois  corn  was  selected  for  four  different  purposes : 
high  and  low  protein  content  and  high  and  low  oil  content. 
These  different  strains  were  selected  by  a  mechanical 
examination  of  the  ears.  This  method  is  based  upon  the 
fact  that  the  kernel  of  corn  consists  of  several  distinct, 
easily  recognized  parts  of  quite  different  chemical  com- 
position. These  are  (1)  the  horny  endosperm  in  which  the 
protein  is  mainly  produced,  (2)  the  starchy  endosperm 
i  111.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  132,  1909. 


THE  BREEDING  OF  CORN 


201 


which  is  low  in  protein  and  rich  in  starch,  and  (3)  the 
germ  which  contains  from  80  to  85  per  cent  of  the  total 
oil  content  of  the  kernel.  Keeping  these  facts  in  mind  one 
will  readily  see  that  by  selecting  ears  whose  kernels  con- 
tain more  than  the  average  proportion  of  horny  endosperm, 
one  will  secure  high-protein  ears.  Likewise  by  selecting 
ears  whose  kernels  contain  germs  larger  than  the  average, 
one  will  secure  high-oil  ears.  The  results  of  ten  years' 
pedigree  breeding  for  high  and  low  protein  content  and 
high  and  low  oil  content  by  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station 
are  summarized  in  the  following  table : 

TABLE  12.  SHOWING  RESULTS  OF  TEN  GENERATIONS  OF  BREEDING 
CORN  FOR  INCREASE  AND  DECREASE  OF  PROTEIN  AND  OIL  l 


YEAR 

HIGH  PRO- 
TEIN CROP, 
PER  CENT 

Low  PRO- 
TEIN CROP, 
PER  CENT 

DIFFER- 
ENCE 

HIGH-OIL 
CROP, 
PER  CENT 

LOW-OIL 
CROP, 
PER  CENT 

DIFFER- 
ENCE 

1896 

10.92 

10.92 

4.70 

4.70 

1897 

11.10 

10.55 

0.55 

4.73 

4.06 

0.67 

1898 

11.05 

10.55 

0.50 

5.15 

3.99 

1.16 

1899 

11.46 

9.86 

1.60 

5.64 

3.82 

1.82 

1900 

12.32 

9.34 

2.98 

6.12 

3.57 

2.55 

1901 

14.12 

10.04 

4.08 

6.09 

3.43 

2.66 

1902 

12.34 

8.22 

4.12 

6.41 

3.02 

3.39 

1903 

13.04 

8.62 

4.42 

6.50 

2.97 

3.53 

1904 

15.03 

9.27 

5.76 

6.97 

2.89 

4.08 

1905 

14.72 

8.57 

6.15 

7.29 

2.58 

4.71 

1906 

.    14.26 

8.64 

5.62 

7.37 

2.66 

4.71 

247.  Other  effects  of  breeding  for  composition.  —  It 

was  found  that  the  continued  selection  of  corn  for  high 
protein  resulted  in  the  production  of  ears  averaging  some- 
what smaller  than  the  low-protein  ears,  the  number  of 
kernels  also  averaging  "  slightly  less  on  the  typical  high- 

1  111.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  128,  1908. 


202        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


protein  ear."  Likewise  the  high-oil  selection  resulted  in  a 
smaller  type  of  ear  than  was  produced  in  the  low-oil  strain. 
In  order  to  determine  whether  or  not  breeding  for  com- 
position affects  materially  the  productiveness  of  corn  the 
Illinois  Station  has  taken,  every  year  since  the  sixth  gen- 
eration, seed  from  each  of  the  four  breeding  plots  and 
planted  it  in  the  station  variety  test  plots  where  it  is 
"  given  conditions  of  soil  and  culture  as  uniform  as  pos- 
sible for  securing  comparable  results."  The  results  of  this 
test  are  given  below: 

TABLE  13.  SHOWING  YIELDS  OF  "ILLINOIS"  STRAINS  IN  VARIETY 
TEST  PLOTS  l 


YEAH 

HlGH-PRO- 
TElN 

STRAIN 
Bu.  PER  A. 

LOW-PRO- 
TEIN 
STRAIN 
Bu.  PER  A. 

HIGH-OIL 
STRAIN 
Bu.  PER  A. 

LOW-OIL 
STRAIN 
Bu.  PER  A. 

STANDARD  VARIETY 
USED  AS  CHECK 

1903 

27.3 

37.7 

32.7 

41.3 

40  .  9  Boone  Co.  White 

1904 

32.1 

55.5 

41.9 

40.5 

53.7       "       " 

1905 

56.6 

60.7 

58.4 

58.1 

68.  4  Silver  Mine 

1906 

65.1 

73.2 

66.3 

83.2 

J75.7   " 
{  87  .  9  Learning 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  lowest  yield  has  in  every  case 
been  produced  by  the  high-protein  corn  and  Smith  of  the 
University  of  Illinois  in  discussing  these  results  says:  "It 
seems  a  high-protein  content  and  the  highest  productivity 
do  not  go  together." 

248.  Objects  of  breeding  for  composition.  —  The 
reasons  for  attempting  to  change  the  composition  of  corn 
by  breeding  are  briefly  summarized  as  follows: 

(1)  Protein  is  the  most  expensive  animal  nutrient. 
Corn,  because  of  its  economical  production  is  one  of  the 
cheapest  of  American  food  stuffs.  It  is  thought  that  stock 
i  111.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  128,  1908. 


THE  BREEDING  OF  CORN  203 

feeders  will  profit  greatly  as  a  result  of  increasing  (he 
protein  content  of  corn  as  it  will  enable  them  to  dispense 
with  the  purchase  of  considerable  quantities  of  more  ex- 
pensive feeding  stuffs. 

(2)  On  the  other  hand,  the  manufacturers  are  increasing 
their  demands  for  those  products  derived  from  the  starch 
of  corn  such  as,  alcohol,  gum,  glucose,  dextrine  and  syrup. 
As  decreasing  the  protein-content  of  corn  increases  the  per- 
centage of  starch  present,  there  is  a  demand  for  a  low- 
protein  corn. 

(3)  Corn  oil  has  recently  found  a  wide  commercial  use 
and  there  is  now  an  actual  demand  for  a  corn  of  high-oil 
content. 

(4)  The  object  of  breeding  corn  for  a  low-oil  content  is 
found  in  the  fact  that  "in  feeding  swine,  the  oil  in  the 
corn  tends  to  produce  a  soft,  flabby  quality  of  flesh  which 
is  very  undesirable,  especially  for  our  export  trade  where 
the  demand  of  the  market  is  for  a  hard,  firm  product." 

HYBRIDIZATION 

249.  Objects  of  hybridization.  —  The  readiness  with 
which  corn  hybridizes  and  the  ease  with  which  the  plant 
is  manipulated  in  artificial  crossing  have  served  greatly  to 
stimulate  the  breeders'  interest  and  effort  in  this  method  of 
corn  improvement.  In  pursuing  this  method  the  breeder 
has  in  mind  two  important  objects  of  practical  value. 
These  are  (1)  the  recombining  of  the  characters  possessed 
by  the  parent  plants  so  as  to  produce  a  progeny  of  in- 
creased value;  (2)  securing  increased  vigor  and  productive- 
ness thereby  augmenting  the  yield.  In  addition  to  these 
objects  of  immediate  practical  value  the  hybridization  of 
corn  yields  interesting  results  of  purely  scientific  value  re- 
lating to  the  hereditary  laws  governing  plant  growth. 


204        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

250.  Degrees  of  relationship  among  corn  plants.  —  It 
is  possible  to  have  several  degrees  of  relationship  among 
corn  plants.    These  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

1.  Inbreeding,  occurring  when  the  pollen  from  a  plant 
fertilizes  the  ovules  of  the  same  plant. 

2.  Close  breeding,  occurring  when  the  pollen  of  a  plant 
fertilizes  the  ovules  of  a  sister  plant,  or  those  of  a  plant 
that  has  grown  from  the  kernels  of  the  same  ear. 

3.  Narrow  breeding,  occurring  when  pollen  from  a  plant 
fertilizes  the  ovules  of  a  plant  not  closely  related  but  of  the 
same  variety. 

4.  Broad  breeding,  occurring  when  the  pollen  from  a 
plant  fertilizes  the  ovules  of  a  plant  of  a  different  variety, 
or  occurring  when  the  pollen  from  a  plant  fertilizes  the 
ovules  of  a  plant  of  a  different  group,  as  between  dent  and 
flint  corn. 

251.  The    transmission    of    characters  —  Mendel's 
law.  —  Inheritance  in  plants  may  be  studied  by  two 
methods:   (1)   by  the  statistical  method  of  considering 
plants  and  their  offspring  collectively;  (2)  by  the  analytical 
method  of  studying  the  separate  characters  and  their 
modes  of  transmission.   The  present  conception  of  plants  is 
that  they  are  composed  of  separately  heritable  units  known 
as  •"  unit-characters."     Examples  of  such  unit-characters 
in  corn  are:  the  color  of  the  grain,  cob,  stem  or  husks;  the 
character  of  the  endosperm;  the  height  of  the  plant;  sus- 
ceptibility or  immunity  to  disease,  and  the  like.    The  law 
governing  the  transmission  of  such  unit-characters  from 
parent  to  offspring  was  first  discovered  by  Gregor  Mendel, 
an  Austrian  monk,  in  1865,  and  rediscovered  by  de  Vries 
and  others  in  1900,  and  is  now  known  as  "  Mendel's  law 
of  hybrids."    The  manner  in  which  the  splitting  up  and 
redistribution  of  parental  characters  occurs  in  hybrids 


THE  BREEDING  OF  CORN  205 

according  to  Mendel's  law,  may  be  best  understood  by  the 
following  simple  illustration: 

If  pure  yellow  corn  be  crossed  with  pure  white  corn  the 
result  will  be  a  hybrid  containing  both  characters,  yellow 
and  white.  In  this  hybrid  corn,  however,  all  of  the  kernels 
will  appear  yellow  because  of  the  fact  that  in  corn  the 
character  yellow  is  dominant  over  white  and  hence  masks 
the  white  color.  In  this  case  white  is  said  to  be  recessive. 
A  plant  produced  from  this  hybrid  seed  will  produce  pollen 
grains  one-half  of'  which  will  represent  yellow  corn  and 
one-half  white  corn.  The  same  is  true  with  regard  to  the 
ovaries.  While  the  plant  is  hybrid,  the  sexual  elements 
remain  pure.  When  fertilization  takes  place,  whether 
it  be  self-fertilization  or  close-fertilization,  four  different 
combinations  of  male  and  female  elements  are  possible  as 
shown  below: 


COMBINATIONS  OF  GERM-CELLS 

CHARACTER  OF  PROGENY 

Yellow    X    Yellow 

Yellow  (pure  as  regards  color) 

Yellow    X    White  

Yellow  (hybrid  as  regards  "  ) 

White     X    Yellow  

Yellow  (hybrid  as  regards  '  '  ) 

White      X     White. 

White  (pure  as  regards      "  ) 

All  of  the  kernels  resulting  from  the  union  of  yellow  X 
white  and  white  X  yellow  germ-cells  will  appear  yellow 
because  of  the  dominance  of  that  color.  The  kernels  re- 
sulting from  the  union  of  the  germ-cells  yellow  X  yellow 
will  show  the  yellow  color  because  in  this  combination  the 
potentiality  of  white  is  entirely  absent.  The  white  color 
will  be  apparent  following  the  combination  white  X  white 
because  here  the  potentiality  of  yellow  is  not  present  to 
mask  it.  We  will  therefore  have  on  each  self -fertilized 
hybrid  ear  three  yellow  kernels 'to  one  white  kernel.  Of 


206        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

all  of  the  yellow  kernels  produced  on  such  an  ear,  one- 
third  will  be  pure  yellow  and  two-thirds  will  be  hybrid  as 
regards  color.  All  of  the  white  kernels  will  be  pure  as  re- 
gards color. 

252.  Dominant  qualities  in  corn  hybrids.  —  We  have 
seen  that  according  to  Mendel's  law  opposite  qualities  of 
parents  are  not  blended  in  the  hybrid,  but  are  inherited 
separately,  the  individual  descendants  showing  only  one 
of  these  characters.    According  to  this  law  the  dominant 
character  shows  in  the  first-generation  hybrid  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  the  other.    The  recessive  character  reappears  in 
the  second  and  subsequent  generations  in  one-fourth  of  the 
progeny,  and  thereafter  remains  pure. 

Investigation  has  shown  the  following  characters  in 
corn  to  be  dominant  over  their  opposites:  Yellow  endo- 
sperm'dominant  over  white  endosperm;  starch  endosperm 
dominant  over  sweet  endosperm;  red  pericarp  dominant 
over  colorless  pericarp;  flint  quality  of  grains  dominant 
over  dent;  flint  quality  of  grains  dominant  over  sweet; 
dent  quality  of  grains  dominant  over  sweet;  blue  aleurone 
dominant  over  colorless  aleurone;  podded  kernels  dom- 
inant oyer  naked  kernels. 

253.  Effects  of  inbreeding.  —  Experiments  conducted 
by  Shull,1  East,2  Montgomery,3  and  Halsted  4  prove  con- 
clusively that  the  immediate  effect  of  inbreeding  corn  is  to 
decrease  the  yield.    These  results  indicate  that  continued 
inbreeding  may  in  some  cases  produce  absolute  sterility. 
Corn  is  sometimes  self-fertilized  for  two  or  three  genera- 
tions by  breeders  with  the  object  of  producing  a  pure  type. 

1  Ann.  Rpt.  Amer.  Breeders  Assoc.,  Vol.  VI,  63-72,  1900. 

2  Conn.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  168,  1911. 

3  Nebr.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Ann.  Rpt.  1912,  183. 

4  N.  J.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  170. 


THE  BREEDING  OF  CORN  207 

This  is  probably  the  quickest  way  of  producing  a  pure 
strain  of  corn.  It  is  accompanied  by  decreased  vigor  and 
yield,  the  greatest  decrease  usually  taking  place  the  first 
year  of  inbreeding. 

254.  Value  of  crossing  varieties.  —  Various  breeders 
have  demonstrated  that  in  many  cases  the  immediate 
effect  of  crossing  two  different  varieties  of  corn  is  the  pro- 
duction of  a  hybrid  with  greater  vigor  and  higher  produc- 
tivity than  either  of  the  parents.    It  has  been  suggested 
by  Hayes  and  East l  that  "the  production  of  corn  by  util- 
ization of  the  increased  vigor  due  to  a  first-generation 
hybrid,  is  of  commercial  importance  and  is  worthy  of 
further  trial."     In  1892  Morrow  and  Hunt  at  the  Illinois 
Experiment  Station  gave  the  results  of  five  tests  of  the 
comparative  yields  of  first-generation  hybrids  and  their 
parents.    The  table  on  page  208  gives  their  results: 2 

255.  Method  of  producing  cross-bred  seed.  —  If  the 
farmer  or  breeder  desires  to  produce  each  year  cross-bred 
seed  for  planting  purposes  the  following  considerations 
should  be  kept  in  mind  in  selecting  the  parent  varie- 
ties: 

(1)  The  two  varieties  selected  should  be  of  the  type 
desired  and  preferably  should  have  been  grown  in  the  same 
locality  for  a  number  of  years. 

(2)  Better  results  will  be  secured  if  comparatively  pure 
varieties  be  selected.    Investigations  on  this  point  indicate 
that  a  minimum  increase  in  yield  will  be  secured  if  the 
parent   varieties   are   "in   a  state   of   hybridity"   when 
crossed. 

(3)  Varieties  should  be  selected  that  mature  at  the  same 
time. 

1  Conn.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  168,  1911. 

2  111.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  25,  1902. 


208 


FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


TABLE  14.  SHOWING  COMPARATIVE  YIELDS  OF  FIRST-GENERATION 
HYBRIDS  AND  THEIR  PARENTS 


VARIETY 


Burr's  White 64.2 

Cranberry 61 .6 

Average 62.9 

Cross 67.1 

Burr's  White 64.2 

Helm's  Improved 79 . 2 

Average 71 . 7 

Cross 73.1 

Learning 73.6 

Golden  Beauty 65. 1 

Average 69.3 

Cross 86.2 

Champion  White  Pearl 60.6 

Learning.  .  .'. . .  .Y. 73.6 

Average 67. 1 

Cross 76.2 

Burr's  White 64.2 

Edmonds 58.4 

Average 61 . 3 

Cross..  78.5 


BUSHELS     OF 

AIR-DRY 

CORN 


(4)  If  corn  of  a  uniform  color  is  desired,  yellow  and  white 
varieties  should  not  be  crossed  as  the  kernels  will  not  be 
of  uniform  color  in  the  year  following  the  cross,  at  which 
time  the  beneficial  results  from*  crossing  will  be  expected. 

The  production  of  crossed  seed  is  not  a  difficult  matter 
provided  the  seed-plot  is  not  located  near  other  corn  fields. 


THE  BREEDING  OF  CORN  209 

The  following  diagram  and  quotation  (Conn.  Exp.  Sta., 
Bui.  168)  illustrate  the  method  to  be  used: 
Plat  1.  Plat  2. 


CDCDC  DDDDD 

FIG.  39.  —  Diagram  showing  method  of  producing  cross-bred 
seed  of  corn. 

"Plant  the  varieties  in  alternate  rows  in  Plat  1,  all  of 
one  variety  as  C  being  planted  in  the  odd  rows  and  the 
other  variety,  D,  in  the  even  rows.  Detassel  all  of  one 
variety  as  D.  This  detasseled  variety  should  be  also  grown 
in  another  isolated  plat,  Plat  2.  Suppose  it  is  determined 
to  use  D  as  the  female  variety,  detassel  all  of  D.  The 
following  results  will  then  be  obtained  at  harvest: 

Plat  1.  D  will  be  cross-pollinated. 

Plat  1,  C  will  be  self-pollinated  or  close-pollinated. 

Plat  2,  D  will  be  self-pollinated  or  close-pollinated. 

"The  detasseling  should  be  done  before  any  of  the 
pollen  is  shed  and  may  be  very  easily  accomplished  by 
taking  firmly  hold  of  the  young  tassel  and  giving  it  a 
steady  upward  pull.  In  order  to  detassel  all  of  a  variety 
it  will  be  necessary  to  go  over  the  field  several  times  at 
intervals  of  a  day  or  two.  It  is  important  to  have  all  of 
the  variety  detasseled  before  the  shedding  of  its  pollen. 


210        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

If  the  varieties  differ  in  date  of  tasseling  it  is  recommended 
that  the  variety  which  tassels  first  be  used  for  the  female 
parent,  as  the  silks  are  receptive,  as  a  rule,  for  a  longer  time 
than  during  the  shedding  of  the  pollen.  If  the  varieties 
do  not  differ  in  the  date  of  maturity,  seed  may  be  obtained 
by  the  following  plan  which  will  necessitate  the  using  of 
only  one  plat.  To  illustrate  by  the  use  of  the  diagram 
for  Plat  1.  Reserve  some  seed  of  C;  detassel  all  of  C  this 
year.  On  the  following  year  use  the  reserved  seed  of  C 
and  the  open  pollinated  seed  of  D  for  the  seed-plot,  using 
D  this  year  for  the  female  parent  and  reserving  enough  of 
D  for  the  following  year." 


CHAPTER  XVII 
SOIL  AND  CLIMATIC  ADAPTATIONS  OF  CORN 

EACH  crop,  according  to  its  physiological  requirements, 
is  adapted  to  make  its  best  growth  on  a  particular  soil 
and  under  a  particular  climate.  The  range  of  conditions 
under  which  a  given  crop  may  be  profitably  grown  is  more 
or  less  limited.  It  is  wider  for  corn  than  for  any  other 
cereal.  Corn  is  grown  in  every  state  and  territory  in  the 
United  States  except  Alaska,  and  in  both  Mexico  and 
Canada.  Almost  all  soil  and  climatic  conditions  are  repre- 
sented on  the  areas  producing  corn  within  this  range. 
Nevertheless,  the  bulk  of  the  production  is  largely  cen- 
tralized in  a  somewhat  restricted  area  (Iowa,  Illinois, 
Missouri,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Indiana,  Ohio)  where  exists 
the  most  favorable  combination  of  soil,  climate,  and  topog- 
raphy. 

SOIL  ADAPTATIONS 

4 

With  climatic  conditions  favorable,  the  factor  which 
influences  the  yield  of  corn  most  is  the  nature  and  condi- 
tion of  the  soil.  *  , 

256.  Soils  adapted  to  corn.  —  Corn  is  successfully 
grown  on  a  wide  variety  of  soils.  Owing  to  its  abundant 
foliage  and  the  rapidity  with  which  it  transpires  water, 
corn  will  not  make  a  satisfactory  growth  on  soils  of  low 
water-holding  capacity.  They  should  be  deep,  friable, 
and  well  supplied  with  decaying  vegetable  matter.  The 
latter  factor  is  of  special  importance,  not  only  because 

211 


212        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

of  its  relation  to  water  storage  in  the  soil,  but  because 
it  insures  an  abundant  supply  of  nitrogen.  Corn  demands 
a  large  supply  of  nitrogen,  flourishing  in  soils  so  rich  in 
this  constituent  as  to  induce  an  excessive  growth  of  straw, 
a  tendency  to  lodge,  and  a  low  yield  of  grain  in  other 
cereals.  Alluvial  river  bottom  soils,  if  well  drained  and  sup- 
plied with  vegetable  matter,  are  ideal  for  corn.  Such 
soils  usually  contain  a  higher  percentage  of  silt  than  of 
any  other  soil  separate,  mixed  with  considerable  quantities 
of  very  fine  sand  and  clay.  Soils  of  this  constitution  are 
of  that  loamy  character  so  admirably  adapted  to  corn 
growing. 

257.  Soils  not  adapted  to  corn.  —  A  large  percentage 
of  the  corn  crop  in  the  cotton-belt  is  each  year  planted 
on  soils   that,  for  various  reasons,  will  not  produce  a 
profitable  yield.     Such  soils  may  be  grouped  in  three 
classes : 

(1)  Sandy  soils,  deficient  in  vegetable  matter  and  min- 
eral  plant-food.      Such   soils    occur   in   extensive    areas 
throughout  the  coastal  plains  region. 

(2)  Uplands  from  which  the  greater  part  of  the  top  soil 
has  been  lost  by  erosion.    Soils  of  this  character  are  abun- 
dant in  all  sections  of  the  cotton-belt  having  an  uneven 
topography. 

(3)  Rich  bottom  lands  which,  for  lack  of  drainage,  have 
become  cold  and  sour. 

(4)  Very  stiff  compact  clays  through  which  the  roots 
cannot  penetrate  and  which,  because  of  their  physical 
character,  are  very  difficultly  prepared. 

258.  Modification  of  soils  for  corn.  —  The  undesirable 
soil  conditions  enumerated  above,  can,  in  most  cases,  be 
so  modified  by  suitable  methods  of  soil  management  as 
to  permit  the  successful  production  of  corn.      The  im- 


SOIL  AND  CLIMATIC  ADAPTATIONS  OF  CORN    213 

poverished  sandy  soils  should  be  planted  frequently  to 
such  crops  as  cowpeas,  soybeans,  velvet  beans,  or  oats 
and  vetch,  and  occasionally  the  entire  crop  plowed  under. 
In  addition  it  will  usually  be  necessary  to  apply  phosphatic 
and  potassic  fertilizers.  The  eroded  uplands  should  be 
terraced  and  such  -  cropping  systems  practiced  as  will 
restore  the  nitrogen  and  vegetable  matter.  The  sour 
bottom  lands  should  be  drained  and  half  a  ton  to  a  ton 
of  slacked  lime  added  to  the  acre.  The  application  of 
rough  manures  to  the  compact  clays  greatly  improves  their 
condition,  especially  when  such  an  application  is  followed' 
by  fall  plowing.  Until  the  productiveness  of  these  un- 
desirable corn  soils  has  been  increased  they  should  not 
be  planted  to  corn. 

259.  Soil  type  and  crop  variety.  —  There  is  no  question 
but  that  there  is  a  great  difference  in  varieties  of  corn  in 
their  adaptation  to  different  soils.    For  example,  Hickory 
King  corn  will  reach  normal  development  on  much  thinner 
soil  than  will  Albemarle  Prolific.    The  best  use  of  the  differ- 
ent types  of  corn  soil  can  be  made  only  when  the  most 
suitable  varieties  are  grown. 

CLIMATIC   ADAPTATIONS 

260.  Factors    of    climate.  —  The    principal   elements 
combining  to  determine  the  climate  of  a  given  region 
are  rainfall,  sunshine,  and  temperature.     Wind  and  hu- 
midity are  minor  climatic  factors.     The  adaptability  of 
a  given  region  for  a  particular  crop  is  determined  both  by 
the  combination  and  distribution  of  these  factors.     In 
corn-growing,  their  distribution  is  of  special  importance 
in  determining  the  length  of  the  growing  season.    In  fact 
the  climate  favorable  to  corn  is  determined  more  by  the 
distribution  than  by  the  intensity  of  these  factors. 


214        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

261.  Influence  of  rainfall.  —  Seasonal  rainfall  and  its 
distribution  is  the  most  important  climatic  factor  in  corn 
production.    While  corn  requires  less  water  to  produce 
one  pound  of  dry  matter  than  many  other  crops,  the  large 
total  weight  of  dry  substance  to  the  acre  produced  by  this 
crop  makes  necessary  large  quantities  of  water.    It  is  es- 
timated that  14  to  20  tons  of  water  must  be  -transpired  to 
produce  one  bushel  of  corn.     This  equals  7  to  10  acre- 
inches  for  a  yield  of  50  bushels  to  the  acre.    When  it  is 
remembered  that  this  water  requirement  does  not  include 
the  loss  from  run-off,  drainage,  and  evaporation,  the  im- 
portance of  an  abundant  rainfall  in  corn  production  is  at 
once  appreciated. 

In  the  cotton-belt  the  May,  June,  July,  and  August 
rainfall  is  most  important  in  producing  corn.  The  distri- 
bution of  the  rainfall  during  this  season  is  of  utmost  im- 
portance in  determining  the  character  of  growth  and  total 
yield.  Excessive  rains  in  the  early  part  of  the  growing 
season  favor  the  development  of  a  shallow  root-system 
which  unfits  the  crop  to  withstand  the  frequent  dry 
weather  of  July  and  August.  Comparatively  heavy  rains 
at  considerable  intervals  throughout  the  entire  growing 
season,  with  sunshiny  weather  in  the  meantime  is  the 
condition  most  favorable  to  the  normal  growth  of  the  corn 
plant.  Frequent  light  showers  permit  the  excessive  loss 
of  moisture  by  evaporation. 

262.  Influence  of  sunshine.  —  The  relation  of  sun- 
light to  the  normal  growth  of  the  corn  plant  was  discussed 
in  the  chapter  on  the  physiology  of  the  corn  plant.    The 
effect  of  sunshine  will  be  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
sunshiny  days  and  the  intensity  of  the  sunlight.     Corn, 
being  a  semi-tropical  plant,  requires  considerable  sunshine 
for  its  normal  growth.    Except  where  extreme  cloudiness 


SOIL  AND  CLIMATIC  ADAPTATIONS  OF  CORN    215 

prevails  there  is  sufficient  sunshine  for  corn  production 
up  to  70  degrees  latitude. 

263.  Influence  of  temperature.  —  Corn   requires,   in 
addition  to  a  moderately  large,  well -distributed  seasonal 
rainfall  and  a  large  amount  of  sunshine,  a  relatively  high 
temperature.    While  it  is  difficult  to  give  precise  limits  to 
any  influence  that  is  one  of  several  absolutely  necessary, 
the  direct  relation  between  temperature  and  yield  is  more 
obscure  than  that  between  rainfall  and  yield.    In  fact  a 
high   average  temperature   and   large   precipitation   are 
somewhat  opposed  to  each  other,  as  low  rainfall  during 
the  growing  season  is  usually  accompanied  by  a  high 
average  temperature.    It  is  the  temperature  during  the 
corn  growing  season,  inclusive,  rather  than  the  average 
annual   temperature    that    influences    the   yield   of    the 
crop.    Three-fourths  of  the  total  corn  crop  of  the  United 
States  is  produced  between  the  July  isotherms  70°  F. 
and  80°  F. 

264.  Length  of  growing  season.  —  From  the  stand- 
point of  the  farmer  there  is  no  factor  in  the  study  of  cli- 
mate that  should  be  given  more  consideration  than  the 
average  length  of  the  growing  season.    It  serves  as  a  key 
to  accurate  knowledge  relative  to  the  possibilities  of  suc- 
cess or  failure  in  the  production  of  crops.     Fig.  16  shows 
the  average  length  of  the  crop  growing  season  in  the 'cotton- 
belt  to  vary  from  200  days  in  the  northern  limit  to  300 
days  in  the  southern  limit.    As  we  proceed  north  from  the 
cotton-belt  the  growing  season  continues  to  decrease  in 
length.    These  figures  are  based  on  the  average  dates  of 
the  last  killing  frost  in  the  spring  and  the  first  killing  frost 
in  the  fall.    As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  actual  length  of  the 
growing  season  is  most  often  limited  by  factors  other  than 
frost.     In  the  cotton-belt  the  growing  period  is  usually 


216        FIELD  CROPti  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

limited  by  the  dry  period  in  the  fall,  making  it  shorter 
than  the  frost  limit  data  indicate. 

Corn  is  unique  in  being  able  to  adjust  itself  to  the  grow- 
ing season.  In  the  extreme  northern  section  of  the  United 
States,  some  varieties  mature  in  80  days.  In  no  part  of 
the  cotton-belt  has  corn  been  able  to  utilize  to  advantage 
a  growing  season  in  excess  of  200  days.  Most  varieties 
mature  in  140  to  180  days.  As  a  usual  thing,  the  longer 
the  growing  season  up  to  a  limit  of  180  or  200  days,  the 
greater  the  yield  of  corn. 

265.  Influence  of  climate  upon  habit  of  growth.  — 
Corn  adjusts  itself  readily  to  changes  in  its  environment. 
We  find,  therefore,  a  marked  correlation  between  climatic 
conditions  and  its  habit  of  growth.  The  greatest  variation 
is  found  in  the  size  of  the  plant  and  in  the  time  of  maturity. 
Southern  varieties  grow  much  taller  than  northern  varie- 
ties, and  the  stalks  are  more  massive.  Hunt l  states  that 
"in  general  it  may  be  said  that  as  we  go  north  or  south  of  a 
given  latitude  a  variety  becomes  one  day  later  or  earlier 
for  each  ten  miles  of  travel,  the  altitude  remaining  the 
same.  That  is  to  say  a  variety  which  ripens  two  weeks 
before  a  killing  frost  in  a  given  locality  would  only  barely 
ripen  if  taken  140  miles  farther  north,  the  altitude  remain- 
ing the  same.  Care  should  be  taken,  therefore,  in  selecting 
new  varieties,  to  get  them  from  the  same  latitude.  If 
obtained  from  much  farther  north  they  may  ripen  too 
early  and  consequently  be  too  small.  If  obtained  much 
farther  south,  they  may  not  ripen." 

1  Hunt's  " Cereals  in  America,"  p.  205. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

CROPPING    SYSTEMS,    MANURES    AND    FER- 
TILIZERS FOR  CORN 

ANY  system  of  corn  production  must  ultimately  fail 
unless  it  maintains  the  producing  power  of  the  land. 
Successful  cropping  systems  are  based  upon  an  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  reasons  for  doing  things.  The  ultimate 
effect  of  each  agricultural  practice  upon  the  producing 
power  of  the  soil  must  be  kept  constantly  in  mind. 

In  only  exceptional  cases  have  the  cropping  systems 
employed  by  southern  farmers  throughout  the  cotton- 
belt  maintained  the  productiveness  of  the  land.  This  has 
led  to  exceptionally  low  average  crop  yields.  The  soil 
problem,  therefore,  of  the  southern  farmer  is  not  merely 
the  maintenance  of  soil  fertility.  He  must  adopt  systems 
of  soil  management  under  which  the  land  becomes  better 
rather  than  poorer.  The  solution  of  this  problem  lies  in 
the  adoption  of  well-planned  cropping  systems,  supple- 
mented by  the  judicious  use  of  manures  and  fertilizers. 

CROPPING   SYSTEMS   FOR  CORN 

The  advantages  of  a  well-ordered  cropping  system  in 
maintaining  soil  fertility  are  discussed  in  connection  with 
rotations  for  cotton,  page  96. 

266.  Continuous  com  culture  impoverishes  soil.  — 
That  the  continuous  growth  of  corn  on  the  same  land 
will  ultimately  lead  to  decreased  yields  is  common  knowl- 
edge. The  Illinois  Experiment  Station  has  compared 

217 


218        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

continuous  corn  growing  with  rotations  of  corn  and  oats; 
and  corn,  oats,  and  clover  with  the  following  results: 

TABLE  15.  SHOWING  AVERAGE  CORN  YIELDS  FOR  LAST  THREE  YEARS 
WHERE  THREE  SYSTEMS  OF  CROPPING  ARE  COMPARED.     (!LL. 

STA.)  * 


CROP  YEARS 

CROP  SYSTEM 

13-YEAR 

EXPERIMENTS. 
BUSHELS 

29-YEAR 

EXPERIMENTS, 
BUSHELS 

1905-6-7 
1903-5-7 
1901-4-7 

Corn  every  year 
Corn  and  oats 
Corn,  oats  and  clover 

35 

62 
66 

27 
46 
58 

The  yield  of  corn  on  this  land  before  the  experiment  was 
started  was  70  bushels  an  acre.  The  one-crop  system  has 
decreased  the  yield  35  bushels  an  acre  in  thirteen  years 
and  43  bushels  in  twenty-nine  years.  The  yields  have  also 
decreased,  though  less  rapidly,  where  the  rotations  were 
practiced.  As  all  crops  were  removed  from  the  land,  it  is 
probable  that  neither  rotation  supplied  organic  matter 
in  sufficient  amounts  to  liberate  the  mineral  matter  re- 
quired by  a  70-bushel  crop  of  corn.  When  all  crops  are  re- 
moved, rotation  will  not  maintain  soil  productiveness. 

On  soils  that  are  quite  deficient  in  mineral  matter,  or 
where  all  crops  are  removed  from  the  land,  the  rotation 
must  be  supplemented  by  manures  or  fertilizers.  This  fact 
is  well  illustrated  by  the  results  of  an  experiment  conducted 
by  the  Louisiana  Station  on  hill  land  originally  covered 
with  pine  trees  and  much  exhausted  by  from  seventy  to 
eighty  years  of  cotton  culture.  The  experiment  consisted 
of  six  one-acre  plots  arranged  in  three  series  of  two  plots 
each,  one  unfertilized  and  the  other  fertilized  for  each 

1  111.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  125,  1908. 


CROPPING  SYSTEMS,  FERTILIZERS  FOR  CORN    219 


crop  in  the  rotation.  The  rotation  was  first  year,  cotton; 
second  year,  corn  and  cowpeas;  third  year,  oats  followed 
by  cowpeas. 

In  the  fertilizing  of  this  rotation  the  cotton  received  30 
bushels  per  acre  of  a  compost  made  by  mixing  two  tons  of 
acid  phosphate  with  a  hundred  bushels  each  of  stable 
manure  and  cotton  seed.  The  corn  received  30  bushels  to 
the  acre  of  a  compost  made  by  mixing  one  ton  of  acid 
phosphate  with  100  bushels  of  stable  manure  and  100 
bushels  of  cotton  seed.  The  oats  received  200  pounds  of 
cotton-seed  meal  and  100  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  to  the 
acre,  and  the  cowpeas  50  pounds  of  acid  phsophate  and 
50  pounds  of  kainit  to  the  acre.  The  results  for  19  years 
follow : 

TABLE  16.  LOUISIANA  FIELD  EXPERIMENTS  AT  CALHOUN. 
AVERAGE  YIELDS  TO  THE  ACRE  FOR  PERIOD  OF  19  YEARS  l 


SERIES 

SEED  COTTON 
POUNDS 

CORN   (BUSHELS) 

OATS  (BUSHELS) 

Unferti- 
lized 

Ferti- 
lized 

Unferti- 
lized 

Ferti- 
lized 

Unferti- 
lized 

Ferti- 
lized 

A.'....;... 
B  v, 
C 

459 
507 
432 
466 

1555 
1811 
1175 
1514 

9.7 
8.9 
9.6 
9.4 

30.4 
30.5 
33.5 
31.4 

22.1 
12.4 
14.9 
16.4 

49.3 
32.2 
44.1 
•  41.8 

Average  .  .  . 

Increase 

1048 

22:0 

25.4 

267.  The  place  of  corn  in  a  rotation.  —  Corn  will  utilize 
more  profitably  than  most  other  field  crops  organic  matter 
that  is  only  partially  decayed.    It  also  requires  an  abun- 
dance of  nitrogen.  For  these  reasons  the  rotations  through- 
xLa.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  Ill,  1908. 


220        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

out  the  corn-growing  regions  outside  of  the  cotton-belt 
are  so  planned  as  to  bring  corn  on  the  land  immediately 
following  the  hay  crop.  A  good  rotation  for  the  corn-belt 
is  corn,  two  years;  wheat  or  oats,  one  year;  timothy  and 
clover,  three  years.  In  the  cotton-belt  corn  usually  follows 
cotton  in  the  rotation,  and  is  followed  by  fall  sown  small- 
grains.  '  When  the  yield  of  corn  alone  is  considered  this  is 
not  the  best  arrangement.  It  is  given  this  position  because 
it  permits  the  early  preparation  of  the  land  for  small- 
grains.  Cotton  is  not  generally  removed  in  time  to  permit 
the  fall  seeding  of  small-grains. 

268.  Suggested  rotations  for  the  cotton-belt.  —  The 
rotation  most  generally  recommended  for  the  cotton-belt 
is  (1)  cotton;  (2)  corn;  (3)  oats  or  wheat  followed  by 
cowpeas.  Often  cowpeas  are  sown  in  the  corn  at  the  last 
cultivation.  This  is  an  excellent  rotation  and  applicable  to 
a  large  part  of  the  cotton-belt. 

The  North  Carolina  State  Department  of  Agriculture 
suggests  the  following  rotation  for  the  cotton  district  of 
that  state:  (1)  cotton,  with  rye  or  oats  as  winter  cover; 
(2)  cotton,  with  crimson  clover  as  winter  cover;  (3)  corn 
with  cowpeas,  plowed  deep  in  fall  after  corn  is  cut  off, 
with  rye  as  winter  cover,  and  back  to  cotton. 

A  four-year  rotation  rather  widely  practiced  in  the  sugar- 
cane sections  of  Louisiana  is  first,  second,  and  third  years, 
sugar-cane;  fourth  year,  corn  with  cowpeas. 

The  number  of  rotations  that  can  be  followed  in  the 
production  of  the  corn  crop  is  large.  No  rotation  should 
be  adopted  that  does  not  provide  a  liberal  supply  of  or- 
ganic matter  to  the  soil.  Open  sandy  soils  subject  to  the 
rapid  loss  of  organic  matter  by  oxidation  are  best  adapted 
to  short  rotations  which  bring  humus  supplying  crops 
on  the  land  at  rather  short  intervals. 


CROPPING  SYSTEMS,  FERTILIZERS  FOR  CORN    221 


MANURES   AND    FERTILIZERS    FOR   CORN 

269.  Manures.  —  The  profitable  increase  in  corn 
yields  from  adding  stable  or  farm  manures  is  almost 
universal.  Probably  the  chief  reason  for  this  is  that  the 
manure  supplies  organic  matter,  which  when  in  proper 
condition  may  greatly  influence  the  water  content  of  the 
soil.  The  value  of  this  indirect  effect  is  evidenced  by  the 
fact  that  manure  sometimes  greatly  increases  the  yield 
of  corn  where  commercial  fertilizers  produce  no  increase. 
The  by-products  of  the  decomposition  of  manure  also 
render  more  available  the  plant-food  constituents  already 
in  the  soil. 

The  marked  effect  of  manure  on  the  yield  of  corn  is 
shown  by  results  from  the  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  and  Illi- 
nois Stations: 

TABLE  17.  RESULTS  FROM  THE  Onio,1  PENNSYLVANIA,2  AND 
ILLINOIS  3  STATIONS  SHOWING  RESULTS  WITH  BARNYARD 
MANURE  ON  YIELD  OF  CORN 


STATION 

ROTATION 

YIELD  OF  CORN 
BUSHELS  TO  THE  ACRE 

No  treatment 

Farmyard 
manure 

Ohio,  13  Yr.  Average 
Perm.,  25-  Yr.  Average. 

111.  New  Manito  Field, 
1907 

Corn,  Wheat, 
Clover 
Corn,       Oats, 
Wheat,  Clover 
Corn 

38.8 

42.1 

8.8 

54.6  (8  tons) 

57.5  (12  terns) 
43.5  (6  tons) 
64.9  (12  tons) 

1  Ohio  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Circ.,  104,  p.  17. 

2  Penn.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.,  190. 

3  Hopkins'  "  Soil  Fertility  and  Permanent  Agr.,"  p.  473. 


222        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

On  a  large  percentage  of  the  farms  in  the  cotton-belt 
farmers  cannot  keep  sufficient  live-stock  to  depend  on 
barnyard  manure  as  the  principal  source  of  organic  mat- 
ter for  all  of  the  cultivated  land.  Hence,  it  is  neces- 
sary that  the  manure  be  supplemented  with  green- 
manures.  The  following  data  relative  to  the  use  of 
green-manures  in  corn  production  was  secured  by  the 
Alabama  Station: 

TABLE  18.  RESULTS  FROM  THE  ALABAMA  STATION  SHOWING  VALUE 
OF  STUBBLE  AND  VINES  OF  VELVET  BEANS  AND  COWPEAS 
AS  FERTILIZER  FOR  CORN  l  1901 


SYSTEM 

Bu.  OF  CORN 
PER  ACRE 

INCREASE  PER 
ACRE 
(BUSHELS) 

Corn  following  corn  

13.6 

Corn  following  velvet  bean  stubble  .... 
Corn    following    velvet    beans,    entire 
growth  plowed  under 

17.9 
25  9 

4.3 
12  3 

Corn  after  drilled  cowpea  stubble  
Corn  after  drilled  cowpeas,  all  plowed  in 

11.4 
20  3 

8.9 

The  profits  resulting  from  the  application  of  vegetable 
matter  to  corn  land  cannot  be  measured  by  the  crop 
yield  immediately  following  the  application.  A  marked 
residual  effect  is  usually  noticed  for  a  number  of  years 
following  the  treatment. 

270.  Lime  for  corn.  —  A  review  of  the  experimental 
evidence  regarding  the  use  of  lime  for  corn  strongly  indi- 
cates that  corn  is  not  a  lime-loving  plant.  According  to 
the  Bureau  of  Soils,  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 


1  Ala.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.,  134. 


CROPPING  SYSTEMS,  FERTILIZERS  FOR  CORN    223 

culture  (Bui.  64),  one  hundred  and  sixty-eight  experiments 
conducted  by  experiment  stations  in  this  country  on  the 
use  of  lime  for  corn  show  an  average  increase  of  3.2 
bushels  an  acre  at  a  cost  of  $8.91  for  the  lime.  While 
lime  is  an  essential  plant-food,  most  soils  are  abundantly 
supplied  in  so  far  as  the  requirements  for  growth  are 
concerned.  A  50-bushel  corn  crop  requires  approxi- 
mately 12  pounds  of  lime.  When  lime  is  required  it  is 
usually  as  a  soil  amendment  rather  than  a  direct  food  for 
the  crop. 

The  soil  conditions  which  would  respond  profitably 
to  an  application  of  lime  in  producing  corn  may  be  divided 
into  three  clases:  (1)  Low-lying  soils  that  have  remained 
wet  for  a  number  of  years  and,  following  drainage,  remain* 
sour;  (2)  upland  sandy  soils  to  which  large  quantities  of 
vegetable  matter  have  been  added,  the  decomposition  of 
which  would  sour  the  soil;  (3)  heavy  clay  soils  in  humid 
regions,  where  the  aeration  is  poor  and  consequently  the 
plant-food  is  in  an  unavailable  form. 

271.  Fertilizers    for    corn.  —  The    fertilizer    practice 
in  the  production  of  corn  in  the  cotton-belt  has  been  much 
abused.    Two  mistakes  are  most  often  noticed.    (1)  The 
application  of  complete  ready  mixed  fertilizers  regardless 
of  the  needs  of  the  particular  soil  in  question;  (2)  depend- 
ing upon  fertilizers  to  offset  the  ill-effects  of  the  one-crop 
system,  poor  tillage,  and  lack  of  drainage.     The  most 
profitable  returns  from  fertilizers  are  possible  only  when 
they  are  employed  to  supplement  the  other  essential  fea- 
tures of  good  soil  management. 

272.  Plant-food    removed    by    corn.  —  The    require- 
ments of  corn  for  the  three  plant-food  constituents  that 
are  recognized  as  having  money  values  in  commercial 
fertilizers  are  indicated  on  page  224: 


224 


FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


TABLE  19.  APPROXIMATE  AMOUNTS  OF  NITROGEN,  PHOSPHORIC  ACID 
AND  POTASH  REMOVED  BY  A  50-BusHEL  CROP  OF  CORN  (Pounds) 


NITROGEN 

PHOSPHORIC 
ACID 

POTASH 

50  bu.  grain  
3000  Ibs.  stover  

47 
24 

19 
14 

15 
39 

Total  in  grain  and  stover 

71 

33 

54 

When  total  yield  of  dry  matter  to  the  acre  is  considered, 
corn  does  not  make  an  excessive  demand  on  the  soil  for 
food.  Nevertheless,  the  amounts  removed  are  appreciable. 
The  nitrogen  should  always  be  returned  in  amounts  greater 
than  that  contained  in  the  crop  to  offset  the  loss  from 
leaching.  The  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  should  be  re- 
turned in  all  cases  except  where  the  soil  contains  large 
natural  supplies  of  these  materials. 

It  should  be  noticed  that  two-thirds  of  the  total  nitrogen 
and  the  greater  part  of  the  phosphoric  acid  removed  fr.om 
the  soil  are  in  the  grain.  The  stover  contains  nearly 
three-fourths  of  the  total  potash.  Even  if  only  the  grain 
was  removed  and  the  stover  returned  to  the  soil  the  supply 
of  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid  in  the  land  would  be 
materially  decreased.  Sound  fertilizer  practice,  however, 
is  not  based  on  supplying  to  the  soil  the  plant-food  constit- 
uents in  the  same  proportion  in  which  they  are  removed 
in  crops. 

273.  Soils  and  fertilizers.  —  The  nature  and  amount 
of  fertilizing  materials  most  profitable  for  corn  are  deter- 
mined largely  by  the  character  of  the  soil  on  which  the  crop 
is  grown.  The  method  of  determining  the  fertilizer  needs 
of  soil  for  cotton  is  given  in  paragraph  100.  This  same 
principle  is  equally  applicable  to  corn.  That  best  results 


CROPPING  SYSTEMS,  FERTILIZERS  FOR  CORN    225 


are  not  necessarily  secured  when  the  fertilizing  constituents 
are  applied  to  the  land  in  the  same  ratio  to  each  other  as 
they  occur  in  the  plant  has  been  demonstrated  by  several 
experiment  stations.  The  results  from  the  Ohio  Station 
are  given: 

TABLE  20.  FERTILIZER  TESTS  WITH  CONTINUOUS  CORN  CULTURE 
AT  THE  OHIO  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION.  AVERAGE 
FOR  16  YEARS,  1894-1909  1 


YIELD  PER 

INCREASE 

Plot, 

FERTILIZING  MATERIALS 

ACRE 

No. 

(Pounds  per  acre) 

Grain 

Stover 

Grain 

Stover 

(Bu.) 

(Lbs.) 

(Bu.) 

(Lbs.) 

1 

None    '.<.... 

22  22 

1441 

2 

Acid  Phos.      160 
Mur.  Potash  100 

Arbitrary 

42.71 

2326 

22.08 

949 

Nitrate  Soda  160 

quantity 

3 

j  Acid  Phos.       60 
1  Mur.  Potash    30 

Ratio  in 

34.95 

1946 

15.90 

634 

[  Nitrate  Soda  160 

corn  plant 

4 

None  

17.46 

1246 

274.  Relative  importance  of  fertilizing  constituents.  - 
A  review  of  the  experimental  evidence  regarding  the  rel- 
ative value  of  the  different  fertilizing  constituents  when  ap- 
plied to  corn  in  the  cotton-belt  shows  that  in  the  majority 
of  cases  nitrogenous  fertilizers  have  increased  the  crop  to 
a  much  greater  extent  than  other  kinds.  There  are  two 
important  reasons  why  this  is  true.  (1)  Corn  makes  more 
excessive  demands  on  the  soil  for  nitrogen  than  for  other 
food  elements.  (2)  Southern  soils  in  general  are  low  in 
organic  matter  and  therefore  deficient  in  nitrogen. 

The  profits  from  the  use  of  phosphatic  fertilizers  are,  as 
1  From  Montgomery's  "Corn  Crops,"  p.  139. 


226        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

a  rule,  greater  than  from  those  supplying  potash,  due 
doubtless  to  the  greater  abundance  of  potash  in  most 
normal  soils.  The  sandy  soils  of  the  Coastal  Plains  region 
are  generally  quite  deficient  in  plant-food  and  respond 
to  the  use  of  a  complete  fertilizer.  The  nitrogen  supply, 
however,  should  be  maintained  by  the  use  of  barnyard 
manure  and  leguminous  green-manures. 

275.  When  to  apply  fertilizers.  —  The  usual  practice 
in  the  cotton-belt  is  to  apply  the  fertilizer  for  corn  either 
a  short  time  before  or  at  the  time  the  crop  is  planted.    This 
is  especially  true  of  phosphatic  and  potassic  fertilizers. 
When  rather  heavy  applications  are  to  be  made,  say  400 
to  800  pounds  to  the  acre,  it  is  good  practice  to  apply  a 
portion  of  the  fertilizer  before  or  at  the  time  of  planting, 
withholding  the  remainder  for  intercultural  application.   In 
determining  the  best  time  to  apply  fertilizers  for  corn,  one 
should  consider  the  nature  of  the  materials  used.    Readily 
soluble  nitrogenous  fertilizers,  such  as  nitrate  of  soda, 
should  not  be  applied  (except  in  small  amounts),  before 
the  crop  has  become  well  established,  and  can  therefore 
utilize  the  fertilizer  at  once  and  prevent  loss  from  leaching. 
It  would  be  wasteful,  however,  to  apply  any  nitrogenous 
substance  late  in  the  growing  season.     One  of  the  chief 
functions  of  nitrogen  is  to  produce  growth.    Its  late  appli- 
cation prevents  it  from  exercising;  this  function. 

276.  Method  of  applying  fertilizers.  —  Various  meth- 
ods are  employed  in  applying  fertilizers  for  corn.     When 
heavy  applications   are   to   be   made,  broadcasting   the 
fertilizer   on  the  land  after  plowing   and  incorporating 
it  in  the  soil  with  a  harrow,  is  an  excellent  practice.    Ap- 
plications up  to  300  pounds  an  acre  are  usually  drilled  in 
or  applied  in  the  hill.     Drilling  with  some  form  of  ferti- 
lizer distributor  is  preferable.     A  combination  method 


CROPPING  SYSTEMS,  FERTILIZERS  FOR  CORN    227 

of  broadcasting  and  drilling  is  sometimes  used.  One 
advantage  of  the  method  is  that  the  fertilizer  applied  in 
the  drill  furnishes  plant-food  during  the  first  growth  before 
.the  roots  are  developed  and  that  which  is  sown  broadcast 
helps  the  later  growth  when  the  roots  spread  out.  Inter- 
cultural  applications  may  be  broadcast  between  the  rows 
and  cultivated  in,  or  they  may  be  drilled  in  six  or  eight 
inches  from  the  row  when  the  corn  is  eight  to  twelve 
inches  high. 

277.  Fertilizer  formulas  for  corn.  —  The  fertilizer  for- 
mulas here  given  are  merely  suggestive.  They  should 
not  be  adhered  to  too  strictly,  as  the  needs  of  the  soil  in 
question  must  receive  first  consideration.  The  ordinary 
corn  fertilizer  most  commonly  used  in  the  cotton-belt 
contains  8  to  10  per  cent  available  phosphoric  acid,  1.65 
to  2.5  per  cent  nitrogen  and  1  to  3  per  cent  potash.  The 
usual  application  is  from  150  to  400  pounds  to  the  acre. 

For  general  use  a  mixture  of  acid  phosphate  and  cotton- 
seed meal  makes  a  good  fertilizer  for  corn.  The  relative 
proportion  of  these  materials  will  depend  on  the  soil. 

Well-improved  lands,  lands  that  are  comparatively  new, 
or  well-drained  bottom  lands  are  usually  benefited  by  acid 
phosphate  at  the  rate  of  100  to  200  pounds  to  the  acre. 

For  soils  rich  in  potash,  Halligan  recommends  the 
following  formula  for  corn: 

2  parts  cotton-seed  meal  j  m  ,bg  ^  ^  ^ 
1  part  acid  phosphate 

The  Texas  Station  recommends  the  following  formula 
for  corn  on  worn  soils: 

Acid  phosphate,  14  per  cent. -, ...... 900  pounds 

Cotton-seed  meal 900  pounds 

Kainit .  .  150  pounds 


228        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

The  above  fertilizer  would  contain  7.2  per  cent  phos- 
phoric acid,  1.6  per  cent  potash  and  3.6  per  cent  nitrogen. 
It  is  recommended  that  it  be  applied  at  the  rate  of  200 
to  400  pounds  to  the  acre. 

Hutchinson  of  the  Mississippi  Station  says: 

"  A  mixture  of  750  pounds  of  cotton-seed  meal  and  1250 
pounds  of  acid  phosphate  to  the  ton  makes  a  good  fer- 
tilizer for  this  state.  From  125  pounds  to  200  pounds  of 
this  mixture  should  be  used  to  the  acre  under  cotton  and 
corn  and  should  be  applied  in  the  drill  or  bed  at  the  time 
of  preparing 'the  land  for  planting." 

Duggar,  of  the  Alabama  Station  suggests  the  following 
fertilizer  formulas  for  corn: 

(A)  100  pounds  acid  phosphate  1  ,,    A,   . 

_„  ,  /  \  (both  just  before  planting) 

50  pounds  nitrate  of  soda   j 

50  pounds  nitrate  of  soda,  at  second  cultivation. 

(B)  100  pounds  acid  phosphate    1  ,,    x,  ,    ,         ,     , .     x 

,  1-  (both  before  planting) 
200  pounds  cotton-seed  meal  j  v 

For  very  sandy  soils: 

100  to  200  Ibs.  acid  phosphate 

100  Ibs.  nitrate  of  soda  (or  200  pounds  cotton-seed  meal) 
50  to  100  Ibs.  kainit. 

278.  Some  general  principles.  —  Experience  and  ex- 
periment station  results  in  the  cotton-belt  have  revealed 
some  general  principles  underlying  the  use  of  fertilizers 
in  corn  production  that  should  be  kept  in  mind. 

(1)  Fertilizers  are  most  profitable  when  used  in  connec- 
tion with  a  well-planned  cropping-system  which  supplies 
the  soil  with  an  abundance  of  organic  matter  and  most 
of  its  needed  nitrogen. 

(2)  A  suitable  cropping-system,  including  the  careful 
saving  of  all  manure,  together  with  the  use  of  a  phosphatic 


CROPPING  SYSTEMS,  FERTILIZERS  FOR  CORN    229 

fertilizer  will  maintain  the  normal  soils  of  the  C9tton-belt 
at  a  high  level  of  productiveness. 

(3)  Nitrogen  is  too  expensive  to  purchase  in  commercial 
fertilizers  to  supply  the  entire  needs  of  the  corn  crop.    It 
should  be  supplied  by  growing  legumes  and  applying 
barnyard  manure. 

(4)  It  seldom  pays  to  use  fertilizers,  (a)  where  corn  is 
grown  continuously;  (b)  on  land  that  is  deficient  in  organic 
matter;  (c)  on  land  that  has  been  poorly  prepared.    Under 
such  conditions  a  relatively  small  percentage  of  the  fer- 
tilizer is  used  by  the  crop. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
PREPARING  THE  SEED-BED  FOR  CORN 

CULTURAL  methods  for  any  crop  must  vary  with  the 
local  situation.  Any  discussion  of  this  phase  of  corn  pro- 
duction, to  be  applicable  to  the  entire  cotton-belt,  must 
deal  largely  with  basic  principles  rather  than  with  details. 
The  basic  principles  underlying  the  preparation  of  the  seed- 
bed for  corn  are  (1)  modifying  the  soil  in  such  a  way  as 
to  enable  it  best  to  meet  the  special  demands  of  the  crop 
for  food  and  water,  and  (2)  protecting  the  crop  from  weeds, 
insects,  or  parasites.  The  farmer  himself  must  determine 
by  study  and  experience  the  detailed  system  whereby 
these  principles  are  to  be  most  profitably  applied  on  his 
own  farm. 

PLOWING   THE   LAND 

279.  Destroying  the  stalks.  —  The  southern  corn- 
grower  often  follows  the  undesirable  practice  of  growing 
corn  every  year  on  the  same  land.  Where  rotation  is 
practiced,  corn  most  often  follows  cotton.  In  either  sys- 
tem the  old  corn  or  cotton  stalks  must  be  disposed  of 
previously  to  plowing  the  land  for  the  succeeding  corn 
crop.  Often  these  stalks  are  burned.  Such  a  practice 
is  never  warranted  in  the  cotton-belt  where  the  greatest 
need  of  the  soil  is  organic  matter.  To  destroy  the  stalks 
so  that  they  can  be  easily  plowed  under,  one  of  the  follow- 
ing methods  may  be  followed.  (1)  By  use  of  the  stalk- 

230 


PREPARING  THE  SEED-BED  FOR  CORN       231 

cutter.  This  is  an  implement  with  one  or  two  heavy 
revolving  cylinders  set  with  knives  that  cut  the  stalks  in 
short  lengths.  The  stalk-cutter  is  sometimes  followed  with 
a  disk-harrow.  (2)  By  breaking  down  the  stalks  with  a 
log  or  heavy  iron  rail,  and  following  with  a  sharp  disk  to 
cut  them  up.  (3)  Corn  stalks  may  be  cut  into  two  or  three 
sections  with  a  hoe  and  the  cotton  stalks  broken  by  beat- 
ing them  with  a  heavy  stick  during  the  frosty  mornings 
of  winter. 

280.  Time  of  plowing.  —  Soils  may  be  divided  into 
two  classes  as  regards  the  most  desirable  time  of  plowing 
for  corn.  (1)  Those  soils  that  are  best  plowed  in  the  fall 
or  early  winter.  (2)  Soils  that  may  be  satisfactorily  plowed 
in  late  'winter  or  early  spring.  . . 

Soils  that  are  advantageously  plowed  in  the  fall  or  early 
winter  are  (1)  heavy  clays;  (2)  soils  covered  with  large 
quantities  of  stubble  or  crop  residue  in  any  form,  and  (3) 
land  infested  with  the  larvae  of  injurious  insects. 

Fall  plowing  makes  available  the  large  stores  of  potential 
fertility  in  clay  soils.  The  free  circulation  of  air  through 
these  soils  during  the  winter  months  permits  important 
chemical  changes,  such  as  oxidation,  to  take  place  whereby 
those  elements  of  plant-food  that  are  tenaciously  held  in 
combination  with  other  matter  are  changed  into  new  forms 
easily  absorbed  by  plants.  By  the  same  processes  com- 
pounds deleterious  to  plant  growth  are  destroyed.  The 
soil  is  also  permitted  to  absorb  readily  and  store  up  for 
future  use  the  winter's  heavy  rainfall. 

Plowing  under  large  quantities  of  organic  matter  in 
the  fall  or  early  winter  gives  sufficient  time  for  this  sub- 
stance to  decompose  before  the  growing  season.  Thus 
the  plant-food  constituents  contained  in  the  organic 
matter  are  available  to  the  crop,  and  in  addition  the  acid 


232        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

by-products  of  this  decomposition  will  have  made  soluble 
much  of  the  native  plant-food  in  the  soil.  The  added  hu- 
mus benefits  the  structure  of  the  soil,  increasing  its  water- 
holding  capacity. 

Loose  sandy  soils,  if  plowed  in  the  fall,  will  suffer  con- 
siderable loss  from  leaching  during  the  winter  months. 
This  is  especially  true  if  the  land  is  left  bare.  Such  soils 
should  not  be  plowed  until  late  winter  or  early  spring. 
It  is  not  advisable,  however,  to  defer  plowing  until  immedi- 
ately before  planting  as  the  seed-bed  will  be  too  loose  for 
best  results. 

It  is  often  impossible  to  plow  land  in  season,  owing  to 
unfavorable  weather  conditions.  Land  should  never  be 
plowed  when  wet  enough  to  prevent  proper  pulverizing. 

281.  Depth   of   plowing.  —  This    must    be    governed 
by  the  character  of  the  soil,  its  previous  treatment,  and 
the  time  at  which  the  plowing  is  done.    In  general,  clay 
soils  should  be  plowed  deeper  than  sands.    A  very  heavy 
clay  soil  should  be  plowed  deep  at  least  once  each  year. 
Soils  of  medium  texture  may  produce  satisfactorily  with 
deep  plowing  every  two  or  three  years.    The  practice  of 
deepening  clay  soils  should  be  gone  about  cautiously. 
Plowing  up  large  quantities  of  inert  subsoil  at  one  opera- 
tion will  temporarily  decrease  productiveness.     The  in- 
crease in  depth  should  be  secured  gradually  by  plowing 
an  inch  deeper  each  year  until  the  desired  depth  has  been 
reached.    For  best  results  all  land  should  be  occasionally 
plowed  8  to  10  inches  deep. 

The  earlier  in  the  season  at  which  plowing  is  done  and 
the  greater  the  amount  of  vegetable  matter  to  be  plowed 
under,  the  greater  is  the  increase  in  depth  that  can  be 
secured  without  experiencing  any  ill  effects. 

282.  Covering    rubbish.  —  An    important    object    of 


PREPARING  THE  SEED-BED  FOR  CORN       233 

plowing  is  to  cover  weeds,  stubble  and  rubbish  of  all  kinds. 
This  work  may  be  greatly  facilitated  by  the  use  of  various 
kinds  of  attachments,  the  most  common  of  which  are: 
(1)  coulters;  (2)  jointers;  and  (3)  drag-chains.  Coulters 
are  of  two  general  types:  (a)  blade  coulters  and  (b)  fin 
coulters.  Blade  coulters  are  attached  to  the  beam  or  share 
and  adjusted  so  as  to  cut  the  furrow-slice  free  from  the 
side  after  the  soil  has  been  raised  somewhat  by  the  mold- 
board.  The  roots  are  then  most  easily  severed.  A  fin 
coulter  is  merely  a  knife  edge  attached  to  the  share.  The 
jointer  is  used  chiefly  in  plowing  sod  land.  It  consists  of 
a  miniature  mold-board  attached  to  the  beam  and  adjusted 
so  as  to  cut  and  turn  under  the  top  part  of  the  furrow- 
slice.  The  result  is  that  the  plow  turns  a  neat  clean  furrow 
without  leaving  a  portion  of  the  rubbish  exposed.  The 
drag-chain  is  used  primarily  in  turning  under  heavy 
growths  of  weeds  or  green-manure  crops.  It  consists  of  a 
heavy  chain,  one  end  of  which  is  attached  to  the  central 
part  of  the  beam,  the  other  end  being  fastened  to  the 
double-tree  on  the  furrow  side  with  slack  enough  to  drag 
down  the  vegetation  on  the  furrow-slice  just  ahead  of  the 
turning  point. 

283.  Subsoiling.  —  This  operation  is  defined  and  the 
precautions  to  be  taken  in  connection  with  the  practice 
are  outlined  in  paragraph  119.  A  number  of  experiments 
have  been  conducted  by  southern  experiment  stations 
to  determine  the  effects  of  subsoiling  land  for  corn.  Many 
of  these  experiments  have  shown  no  beneficial  effects. 
In  some  cases  negative  effects  have  been  noticed.  How- 
ever, where  subsoiling  has  been  practiced  in  the  fall  on 
lands  underlain  near  the  surface  with  an  impervious 
clay  subsoil,  beneficial  results  have  usually  been  sfe- 
cured. 


234        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


PREPARATION   OF   PLOWED    LAND 

284.  Treatment    of    plowed    land.  —  The    treatment 
of  the  land  from  plowing  to  planting  is  given  with  various 
types  of  harrows.    Special  conditions  may  require  the  use 
of  compacting  implements.    The  primary  objects  sought 
for  in  the  preparation  of  plowed  land  are  (1)  pulverizing 
clods,    (2)    conserving  moisture,    (3)    killing   weeds,    (4) 
compacting  the  subsurface,  and  (5)  leveling  the  surface. 
The  amount  of  harrowing  that  must  be  given  the  land  after 
plowing  will  depend  upon  (1)  the  character  of  soil,  (2)  the 
condition  of  the  land  when  plowed  as  well  as  its  previous 
treatment,  and  (3)  the  time  at  which  the  harrowing  is 
done.    Clay  soils  require  more  fitting  than  loams  or  sands. 
It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  clay  soils  be  har- 
rowed as  quickly  as  possible  after  plowing.    One  harrowing 
within  a  few  hours  after  plowing  will  accomplish  as  much 
as  three  or  four  harrowings  after  the  clods  are  dry.    This 
is  especially  true  of  soils  plowed  in  late  winter  or  spring. 
Fall-plowed  soils,  if  not  planted  to  a  cover-crop,  are  often 
left  in  a  rough  condition  until  after  the  rainy  season. 
Under  such  conditions  the  tendency  to  run  together  in  a 
compact  condition  is  not  so  great.    Heavy  soils  that  have 
been  plowed  when  too  wet  or  that  have  been  pastured 
during  rainy  weather  are  prepared  with  extreme  difficulty. 
In  fact  it  is  almost  impossible  to  secure  an  ideal  seed-bed 
under   such   conditions.     This  emphasizes   the   extreme 
folly  of  such  practices.     A  good  loam  or  sandy  soil,  if 
plowed  when  in  proper  condition,  may  require  very  little 
harrowing  to  secure  a  good  seed-bed. 

285.  The  disk-harrow.  —  This  is  unquestionably  the 
best  tool  for  pulverizing  to  a  depth  of  several  inches.    The  - 
importance  of  pulverizing  all  clods  in  the  seed-bed  before 


PREPARING  THE  SEED-BED  FOR  CORN       235 

planting  cannot  be  overestimated.  Large  lumps  massed1 
together  have  between  them  much  air  space.  Such  a 
condition  not  only  allows  the  rain  water  to  percolate  to 
lower  depths  too  rapidly,  but  it  admits  too  much  surface 
air  which  rapidly  dries  out  the  lumps  and  robs  the  seed-bed 
of  its  moisture.  A  seed-bed  must  consist  of  well-firmed 
fine  earth  if  roots  are  to  penetrate  it  readily.  For  pulver- 
izing sod,  stubble  or  corn-stalk  land,  the  full-bladed  disk 
is  preferable.  For  compact  soils,  the  cutaway  disk  is  a 
good  implement. 

286.  The  smoothing  harrow.  —  On  land  that  is  free 
from  large  clods  and  trash  some  form  of  smoothing  harrow 
is  the  best  implement  for  smoothing  the  surface,  killing 
weeds,  and  conserving  moisture.     The  adjustable  slant- 
tooth  and  lever  forms  are  more  practical  and  popular. 
Farmers  with  sufficient  acreage  to  justify  it  are  advised 
to  use  the  large  four-section  harrows  because  of  the  high 
price  of  farm  labor.    With  such  an  implement  one  man  and 
four  horses  can  harrow  from  thirty  to  forty  acres  in  a 
day.    These  harrows  should  be  more  generally  used.    They 
leave  the  ground  in  a  most  excellent  state  of  tilth. 

287.  Special  harrows.  —  Other  types  of  harrows  used 
for  special  purposes  in  the  preparation  of  corn  land  are 
the  spring-tooth  harrow,  the  acme  or  curved-knife  form 
of  harrow,  the  weeder  and  the  meeker  harrow.     The 
spring-tooth  harrow  has  a  decided  value  for  stony  land  or 
in  timbered  sections  where  the  teeth  are  likely  to  catch 
on  roots.     The  acme  harrow  is  most  useful  in  the  later 
stages  of  pulverization  on  soil  free  from  stone  and  stalks. 
It  consists  of  a  series  of  twisted  blades  which  cut  the  soil 
and  work  it  over.    Where  stalks  are  present  they  ride  over 
them  too  easily.    The  weeder  is  a  modified  form  of  spring- 
toothed  harrow  adapted  primarily  to  killing  weeds.     It 


236        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

is  for  shallow  tillage  on  friable,  easily  worked  soil.  The 
meeker  harrow  is  merely  a  series  of  lines  of  small  disks 
arranged  on  straight  axles.  It  is  used  primarily  for  the 
pulverization  of  numerous  small  hard  lumps  on  the  sur- 
face. 

288.  Subsurface  packers.  —  A  fairly   compact  seed- 
bed is  desirable  at  planting  time.    When  plowing  is  done 
long  in  advance,  rains  usually  accomplish  this  object. 
Soils  that  are  plowed  after  the  rainy  season,  or  immediately 
before  planting,  are  much  benefited  when  some  imple- 
ment is  used  upon  them  that  will  bring  the  furrow-slice 
in  close  contact  with  the  subsoil,  firm  the  seed-bed,  and 
leave  a  loose  mulch  on  top.    In  arid  sections,  fall-plowed 
lands  are  usually  benefited  by  this  treatment.    It  prevents 
the  rapid  drying  out  of  the  plowed  portion  and  conse- 
quently the  loss  of  much  water  from  the  subsoil.     An 
excellent  implement  for  accomplishing  this  purpose  is  the 
Campbell  form  of  subsurface  packer.    It  "  consists  of  small 
wheels  placed  five  inches  apart  on  an  axle.    The  rim  is 
much  thickened  and  is  triangular  in  shape,  with  the  thin 
edge  outward,  so  that  the  effect  is  to  give  a  decided  down- 
ward and  sidewise  pressure,  while  enough  fine  earth  is  left 
at  the  immediate  surface  to  serve  as  a  mulch." 

When  a  subsurface  packer  is  not  available,  a  disk- 
harrow  may  be  made  to  serve  the  purpose  by  having  the 
disks  set  with  very  little  angle  and  weighted  to  force  them 
deeply  into  the  soil. 

289.  Ridging  corn  land.  —  In  certain  sections  of  the 
cotton-belt,  notably  on  the  stiff,  waxy  lands  of  Alabama, 
Mississippi,  and  Texas,  some  farmers  follow  a  system  of 
ridging  or  forming  beds  on  which  the  rows  of  corn  are 
planted.     For  poorly  drained  soils  that  compact  readily 
after  rains  this  system  possesses  some  advantages,  pro- 


PREPARING  THE  SEED-BED  FOR  CORN       237 

vided  the  ridges  are  not  left  too  high.  It  provides  in- 
creased drainage  and  warmth  and  obviates,  to  an  extent, 
the  tendency  of  these  soils  to  become  quite  compact  as  a 
result  of  the  spring  rains.  It  must  be  remembered,  how- 
ever, that  ridged  land  exposes  more  surface  to  evaporation 
and  crops  are  more  subject  to  drought  when  this  system 
is  followed  than  when  the  land  is  cultivated  level.  Even 
where  the  ridging  of  the  land  is  necessary,  the  ridges 
should  be  partially  harrowed  down  before  planting. 

290.  Wide  beds  for  corn.  —  A  modification  of  the 
ridging  system  whereby  surface  drainage  is  facilitated 
and  the  advantages  of  level  planting  are  partially  secured 
has  been  tried  with  excellent  results  by  some  of  the  south- 
ern stations.  This  system  is  described  by  Duggar  as  fol- 
lows: 

"Prepare  the  field  by  back-furrowing  so  as  to  make 
eight-foot  lands,  or  lands  of  double  the  width  desired  for 
a  single  row.  Plant  two  rows  four  feet  apart  on  this  eight- 
foot  land.  This  places  each  row  two  feet  from  a  water- 
furrow  on  one  side.  The  other  side  of  the  same  row  can 
be  tilled  level." 


CHAPTER  XX 

PLANTING   AND    CULTIVATING    THE   CORN 
CROP 

UNQUESTIONABLY  the  two  most  important  reasons  for 
the  low  yield  of  corn  in  the  South  are  the  poor  cropping 
systems  of  the  region  and  lack  of  care  in  the  preparation 
of  the  seed-bed.  Until  these  two  serious  defects  have  been 
corrected  the  southern  corn-grower  cannot  expect  to  re- 
ceive maximum  returns  for  labor  expended  in  planting 
and  cultivating  the  crop.  Likewise  the  value  of  a  good 
soil  well  prepared  may  be  reduced  to  a  minimum  by  poor 
methods  of  planting  or  a  disregard  for  correct  principles 
of  interculture. 

PLANTING   THE   SEED 

Poor  stands  of  corn  are  often  due  to  the  planting  of 
seed  of  low  vitality.  The  impression  that  there  is  no  need 
of  testing  seed  corn  in  the  South  has  become  somewhat 
general.  As  there  are  a  great  many  ways  in  which  the 
vitality  of  seed  corn  may  be  impaired  aside  from  severe 
freezing,  and  as  the  method  of  testing  seed  corn  is  very 
simple  and  inexpensive,  the  planting  of  untested  seed  by 
any  farmer,  regardless  of  his  locality,  cannot  be  justified. 

291.  Testing  the  seed.  —  The  corn  must  be  tested 
before  the  seed  is  shelled.  A  box  or  tray  approximately 
three  inches  deep  and  of  sufficient  size  is  filled  with  wet 
sawdust  or  sand.  This  is  covered  with  cloth  that  has  been 
ruled  off  in  two-inch  squares,  each  square  being  numbered. 

238 


PLANTING  AND  CULTIVATING  THE  CORN  CROP    239 

The  ears  to  be  tested  are  placed  on  a  table  or  convenient 
place  and  numbered  consecutively.  Six  grains  are  taken 
from  each  ear  and  placed  in  the  corresponding  square  on 
the  cloth.  In  sampling  the  ears  one  should  take  two  grains 
near  the  butt,  two  from  the  middle  and  two  from  near 
the  tip.  The  grains  are  covered  with  a  second  cloth  on 
which  is  placed  a  little  sawdust.  The  whole  is  thoroughly 
moistened  and  kept  for  six  or  seven  days  where  the  tem- 
perature is  regular  from  60  to  70  degrees  F.  Moisture 
should  be  added  once  a  day  during  the  test.  All  ears  that 
do  not  show  a  vigorous  germination  should  be  discarded. 

292.  Methods  of  planting  corn.  —  There  are  three 
methods  of  planting  corn  in  the  cotton-belt.  These  are: 
(1)  drilling;  (2)  checking;  (3)  listing.  The  most  profitable 
method  will  be  determined  by  a  number  of  factors,  most 
important  of  which  are  soil  topography,  injury  from 
weeds  and  grass,  moisture  supply,  and  cost  of  farm  labor. 

Drilling.  —  The  greater  part  of  the  corn  crop  in  the 
cotton-belt  is,  at  present,  planted  in  drills.  The  rolling 
lands  so  often  suffer  from  washing  that  it  is  necessary 
to  preserve  them  as  much  as  possible  by  running  the  rows 
at  right  angles  to  the  slope  of  the  hill,  rather  than  by  plant- 
ing the  corn  in  check-rows.  Each  row  forms  a  miniature 
terrace  and  erosion  is  thus  reduced  to  a  minimum  or  in 
many  cases,  entirely  prevented.  It  is  also  easier  to  place 
fertilizer  evenly  under  drills  than  under  hills.  Contrary 
to  the  rather  general  impression  that  heavier  yields  are 
made  when  the  corn  is  planted  in  drills,  which  distribute 
the  plants  evenly  over  the  ground,  than  when  it  is  planted 
in  check-rows,  nearly  all  of  the  experiments  so  far  con- 
ducted have  shown  no  difference,  or  comparatively  small 
differences  due  to  methods  of  distribution,  when  the  num- 
ber of  plants  to  the  acre  remain  the  same.  Land  that  is 


240        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

in  such  a  condition  as  to  necessitate  planting  on  narrow 
beds  or  ridges  makes  checking  impractical.  Also  a  large 
percentage  of  the  corn  land  in  the  South  is  cut  up  into 
small  irregular  shaped  fields  that  do  not  admit  of  the  ready 
use  of  any  except  one-horse  drills  in  planting.  The  fact 
that  one-horse  drills  are  much  cheaper  than  check-row 
planters  is  partially  responsible  for  their  more  general  use. 
In  regions  where  the  land  is  level  or  gently  sloping,  two- 
horse  drills  are  coming  into  general  use. 

Checking  corn.  —  By  this  practice  the  grains  are  planted 
in  hills  so  that  the  rows  will  run  both  ways,  and  can  be 
cross-cultivated.  Its  advantages  over  drilling  relate 
largely  to  economy  of  production  rather  than  to  larger 
yields.  It  is  especially  recommended  for  level  lands  that 
are  foul,  as  it  avoids  the  use  of  the  hoe  in  keeping  down 
weeds  between  plants  in  the  drill.  Corn  is  usually  checked 
by  using  a  two-horse  check-rower.  This  is  an  adjustable 
implement  which  permits  the  planter  to  space  the  rows 
and  the  distance  between  the  hills  to  suit  the  requirements 
of  the  land.  By  means  of  a  wire  chain  stretched  across  the 
field  one  man  and  team  can  plant  in  straight  rows  in  both 
directions,  12  or  15  acres  a  day.  Corn  is  sometimes 
checked  by  hand,  the  rows  being  carefully  laid  off  at 
uniform  distances  each  way.  The  seed  is  dropped  where 
the  furrows  intersect. 

As  the  price  of  farm  labor  in  the  cotton-belt  advances, 
the  practice  of  checking  corn  will  become  more  general 
on  the  level  lands,  and  the  laborious  practice  of  "  hoeing 
corn"  will  be  abandoned. 

Listing  corn.  —  The  practice  of  planting  corn  in  a  deep 
furrow  made  with  a  double-mold-board  plow  known  as  a 
"lister"  has  become  quite  general  in  the  drier  regions 
west  of  the  Mississippi  River.  Usually  the  furrows  are 


PLANTING  AND  CULTIVATING  THE  CORN  CROP    241 

opened  and  the  corn  planted  without  any  previous  prep- 
aration of  the  land.  As  a  rule,  this  practice  cannot  be 
recommended,  especially  if  the  soil  is  stiff  and  heavy. 
The  land  should  be  plowed  in  the  fall  to  conserve  moisture. 
If  it  is  not  desirable  to  flat-break  the  land  the  lister  may 
be  run  in  the  fall  and  the  land  kept  harrowed  during  the 
winter.  In  the  spring  the  ridges  may  be  split  out  with 
the  lister  and  the  corn  planted. 

When  planted  in  a  deep  furrow  the  corn  is  better  enabled 
to  endure  drought,  the  plants  are  not  so  easily  blown  down, 
and  weeds  in  the  corn  rows  are  more  easily  covered  by 
cultivation.  The  chief  advantage  is  that  of  inducing  the 
plants  to  root  deeply  in  the  soil.  Listing  corn  should  not 
be  attempted  except  in  regions  of  deficient  rainfall,  and 
preferably  only  on  the  loamy  or  sandy  soils. 

Planting  corn  in  the  water  furrow  is  practiced  with 
excellent  results  on  the  permeable  sandy  hill  or  ridge 
lands  of  the  South.  By  back-furrowing,  ridges  are  made 
about  five  feet  apart.  Usually  a  narrow  strip  about 
eight  inches  wide  between  the  ridges  is  left  unbroken 
until  planting  time.  This  is  thrown  out  with  a  shovel 
plow  and  the  seed  planted  immediately.  This  method 
cannot  be  recommended  for  heavy  soils,  or  soils  well  sup- 
plied with  moisture. 

293.  Time  of  planting.  —  Throughout  the  cotton- 
belt  it  is  the  general  experience  that  corn  planted  early 
yields  better  than  medium  or  late  plantings.  While  the 
planting  season  is  much  longer  in  the  cotton-belt  than  in 
regions  farther  North,  the  growing  season  is  so  often 
shortened  by  the  mid-summer  and  fall  drought  as  to  render 
the  late  plantings  very  uncertain.  Late  planted  corn 
matures  in  less  time  than  the  early  plantings.  This  tends 
towards  decreased  yields.  Growing  conditions  are  most 


242        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

favorable  in  the  spring  and  early  summer.  Corn  should 
be  planted  sufficiently  early  to  reap  the  advantages  of 
these  favorable  conditions.  Also  the  attacks  of  bud- 
worms  are  often  escaped  by  planting  the  crop  early.  Where 
corn  is  subject  to  injury  by  bud- worms  it  should  be  planted 
either  as  early  as  possible  or  rather  late.  The  late  planted 
corn  rapidly  grows  beyond  the  stage  in  which  it  is  attacked 
by  these  insects.  Also  the  soil  becomes  so  warm  as  to 
discourage  them.  It  is  thought  that  late  planting  re- 
duces the  injury  from  weevil  by  reason  of  the  late  date  of 
maturity. 

While  the  early  plantings,  as  a  rule,  give  the  best  results 
nothing  is  to  be  gained  by  putting  seed  in  soil  that  is  too 
cold  or  too  wet  to  favor  germination.  Planting  should 
always  be  deferred  until  the  ground  is  sufficiently  dry  to 
work  well  and  warm  enough  for  immediate  growth.  In 
the  southernmost  part  of  the  cotton-belt,  corn  planting 
begins  in  February  and  becomes  general  by  the  first  of 
March.  As  one  proceeds  North  the  average  date  of  the 
planting  season  gradually  becomes  later,  being  March 
15th  for  the  middle  part  of  the  Gulf  states,  and  April 
1st  to  15th  for  the  northern  part.  The  optimum  season 
for  planting  corn  in  the  different  regions  of  the  United 
States  is  shown  on  page  243. 

294.  Depth  of  planting.  —  This  varies  with  the  tem- 
perature and  moisture  of  the  soil.  As  a  rule  early  planting 
should  be  shallow,  not  over  one  inch,  as  at  this  time  only 
the  surface  soil  is  warm  enough  to  germinate  the  seed. 
Stiff  heavy  clays,  especially  those  lacking  in  humus, 
should  be  planted  shallow,  otherwise  rains  may  so  pack 
the  soil  as  to  prevent  the  seed  from  coming  to  a  stand. 
The  lighter,  sandy  soils  should  be  planted  deeper  to  insure 
sufficient  moisture  for  germination.  These  soils  also  warm 


PLANTING  AND  CULTIVATING  THE  CORN  CROP     243 
TABLE  21.  TIME  OF  PLANTING  CORN  IN  CERTAIN  REGIONS  1 


PLANTING 

REGION 

BEGINNING 

GENERAL 

ENDING 

PERIOD, 

DAYS 

Gulf  States  .  .  , 

March  15 

April    5 

May  10 

55 

Central  States: 

(Virginia  to 

Kansas)  .... 

April  15 

May     1 

May  25 

40 

Northern  States: 

(New  York  to 

Minnesota)  . 

May  10 

May  20 

June    1 

20 

up  readily  in  the  spring.  In  dry  regions  it  is  often  neces- 
sary to  plant  corn  three  or  four  inches  deep.  As  a  rule 
planting  deeper  than  two  inches  is  undesirable.  When 
the  seed  is  planted  deep  much  of  the  food  supply  stored 
in  the  grain  must  be  consumed  before  the  young  plant  can 
establish  its  root-system,  reach  the  surface,  and  expand 
its  leaves.  As  the  depth  to  which  the  seed  is  covered  does 
not  influence  the  depth  of  the  root-system,  the  primary 
consideration  is  securing  sufficient  warmth  and  moisture 
»  to  insure  favorable  germination  and  immediate  growth. 
295.  Importance  of  getting  a  stand.  —  Every  missing 
plant  means  wasted  land  and  labor  and  decreased  yield. 
As  a  rule  replanting  does  not  pay.  The  replants  seldom 
produce  much  grain  owing  to  the  fact  that  they  are  sur- 
rounded by  plants  that  mature  their  pollen  before  the 
younger  silks  are  formed,  and  the  pollination  of  the  later- 
planted  stalks  is  incomplete.  Also  the  replants  are  often 
cut  short  by  dry  weather.  Precaution  should  be  taken 
to  secure  a  favorable  stand  at  the  first  planting.  Where 


.  S.  Dep't  of  Agr.  Yearbook  1910,  p.  491. 


244        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

a  very  poor  stand  has  been  secured,  the  better  plan  would 
be  to  make  an  entire  new  planting. 

296.  Distance  between  rows  and  hills.  —  The  proper 
spacing  of  corn  plants  is  affected  so  much  by  local  condi- 
tions that  little  specific  information  on  this  point  can  be 
given.  It  is  a  question  that  each  farmer  must  decide,  by 
observation  and  experience,  for  himself.  The  following 
general  facts  should  be  kept  in  mind: 

(1)  For  greatest  production  thicker  planting  should  be 
practiced  on  rich  soils,  and  soils  supplied  with  an  abun- 
dance of  moisture,  than  on  poor  or  droughty  soils. 

(2)  Varieties  with  small  or  medium  sized  stalks  should 
be  planted  thicker  than  those  with  large  stalks. 

When  corn  is  planted  too  thick  the  weight  of  stover 
increases  and  the  production  of  good  ears  decreases.  Too 
thin  spacing  will  decrease  the  yield  of  both  stover  and 
grain. 

Distances  that  are  widely  applicable  in  the  cotton- 
belt  are:  (1)  for  soils  of  low  fertility,  rows  5  feet 
apart  and  plants  3  feet,  or  checks  approximately  3  feet, 
10  inches  each  way;  (2)  for  soils  of  medium  produc- 
tiveness, rows  4%  feet  apart  and  plants  2%  feet,  or 
checks  3  feet,  4  inches  each  way;  (3)  for  fertile  soils 
well  supplied  with  moisture,  rows  4  feet  apart  and  plants 
\Y%  feet,  or  checks  3^  feet  apart  each  way  with  two 
plants  in  a  hill. 

Distance  tests  at  the  Alabama  and  Georgia  stations 
show  a  small  increase  in  yield  from  so  dividing  the 
space  allowed  for  each  plant  as  to  give  practically  the 
same  distance  between  plants  as  between  rows.  How- 
ever, wider  rows  permit  of  more  economical  cultiva- 
tion and  as  the  difference  is  small  it  can  be  well  sac- 
rificed. 


PLANTING  AND  CULTIVATING  THE  CORN  CROP    245 


,  CULTIVATING    THE    CROP 

297.  The  objects  of  interculture  in  corn  production 
are:  (1)  the  destruction  of  weeds;  (2)  the  conservation  of 
moisture;  (3)  increasing  the  availability  of  plant-food  by 
soil  aeration,  and  (4)  preventing  run-off  of  rainfall  by 
keeping  the  surface  loose  and  porous. 

The  relative  value  of  each  of  the  above  objects  will 
vary  according  to  locality  and  season.  On  all  soils  in  arid 
regions,  except  the  adobe  soils,  the  conservation  of  mois- 
ture is  of  first  importance  whereas  the  soil  aeration  re- 
sulting from  interculture  has  little  or  no  value  owing  to 
the  natural  high  porosity  of  arid  soils.  Numerous  care- 
fully conducted  experiments  have  shown  that  in  humid 
regions  the  destruction  of  weeds  is  unquestionably  the 
function  of  primary  importance  in  crop  cultivation.  This 
function  may,  however,  take  a  secondary  place  during 
seasons  of  limited  rainfall  or  periods  of  protracted  drought. 
Again  on  certain  compact  clays  in  humid  regions,  soil 
aeration  may.  become  paramount  among  the  objects  of 
interculture.  The  studious  farmer  will  become  familiar 
with  the  objects  of  interculture  and  will  strive  to  secure 
them  to  the  greatest  degree  without  injuriously  mutilating 
the  root-system  of  his  crop. 

298.  Importance  of  thorough  early  cultivation.  —  For 
best  results  corn  must  make  a  steady  vigorous  growth 
from  germination  to  maturity.    The  effects  of  an  unfavor- 
able condition  which  checks  the  early  growth  of  the  crop 
cannot  be  overcome  by  any  amount  of  subsequent  culti- 
vation.   Thrifty,  strong,  thick  corn  plants  are  most  gen- 
erally the  result  of  proper  treatment  during  their  early 
growth. 

The  seed-bed  being  properly  prepared,  cultivation  should 


246        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

begin  soon  after  planting.  Horse  weeders  or  the  common 
smoothing  harrow  should  be  used  as  often  as  needed  to 
break  a  surface  crust  or  to  kill  weeds  during  their  early 
growth.  Weeds  are  most  easily  and  economically  de- 
stroyed when  they  are  only  a  few  days  old.  For  trashy 
land  the  weeder  is  preferable  to  the  smoothing  harrow. 
The  use  of  the  weeder  or  harrow  should  be  continued 
until  the  corn  is  six  or  eight  inches  high.  These  imple- 
ments are  light  and  do  not  penetrate  the  soil  deeply. 
Consequently  wide  ones  can  be  used  and  a  large  area  of 
land  passed  over  in  a  day.  These  are  the  most  economical 
cultivations  that  the  crop  receives. 

299.  Cultivation  by  separate  rows.  —  When  the  corn 
reaches  a  height  that  will  not  permit  the  use  of  weeders 
or  harrows,  tillage  by  separate  rows  should  begin.     On 
level  land  two-horse  cultivators  should  be  used  until  the 
corn  gets  so  tall  that  the  rows  cannot  be  straddled  without 
injury  to  the  plants.     High-priced  labor  makes  the  use  of 
these  improved  implements  imperative.    Late  cultivations 
may  be  given  with  one-horse  implements.     When  it  is 
necessary  to  use  cultivators  while  the  plants  are  quite 
small,  fenders  should  be  attached  to  prevent  injuring  the 
plants  or  covering  them  with  clods. 

300.  Depth   and   frequency   of   cultivation.  —  Under 
certain  conditions  the  first  cultivation  by  separate  rows 
may  be  deep  and  thorough,  as  when  heavy  rains  before 
or  after  planting  have  rendered  the  soil  so  compact  as.  to 
form  a  poorly  aerated  seed-bed.     All  other  cultivations 
should  be  shallow.    The  object  should  be  to  maintain  at 
all  times  a  uniform  soil  mulch  covering  the  entire  space 
between  the  rows.     The  most  desirable  depth  of  mulch 
will  depend  on  conditions.     Where  rainfall  is  abundant 
the  mulch  should  not  be  deeper  than  2J^  inches.    Where 


PLANTING  AND  CULTIVATING  THE  CORN  CROP    247 

droughts  are  common  or  in  regions  of  scanty  rainfall  a 
depth  of  3  or  4  inches  may  be  necessary.  Whatever  the 
conditions,  the  desired  depth  of  mulch  should  be  estab- 
lished while  the  corn  is  young  and  no  attempt  should  be 
made  to  deepen  it  later  in  the  season;  such  a  practice  is 
sure  to  check  the  growth  of  the  crop  by  mutilating  its 
root-system. 

Corn  should  be  cultivated  often  enough  to  keep  down 
weeds  and  maintain  constantly  a  loose  mulch  on  the  soil. 
In  humid  regions  this  usually  necessitates  cultivating  the 
crop  every  ten  to  twelve  days.  As  a  rule  the  cultivations 
are  given  less  frequently  than  is  desirable. 

301.  Value  of  late  cultivation.  —  Most  farmers  "lay 
by"  corn  too  soon.     Conditions  often  demand  that  the 
crop  be  cultivated  after  the  plants  are  tasseling.     These 
late  cultivations  should  be  exceptionally  shallow.     The 
prejudice  that  has  sprung  up  against  cultivating  corn 
late  is  due  largely  to  a  disregard  for  proper  precautions, 
especially  as  regards  depth  of  cultivating.    At  this  season 
the  roots  are  very  near  the  surface.     This  is  especially 
true  if  the  later  part  of  the  growing  season  has  been  ex- 
cessively rainy. 

302.  Kinds  of  cultivators.  —  Cultivators  are  of  two 
general  types:  shovel  cultivators  and  disk  cultivators. 
The  evolution  of  the  shovel  cultivator  is  briefly  sum- 
marized in  the  following  statement  by  Montgomery: 1 

"The  first  horse  cultivators  were  single  shovel  plows 
consisting  of  a  very  broad  mold-board  shovel  mounted  on  a 
beam,  with  handles  to  guide.  Later  two  narrower  shovels 
were  substituted  for  the  single  broad  shovel.  Though  this 
was  an  improvement,  it  was  still  necessary  to  go  twice 
in  each  row  for  thorough  cultivation.  Later  two  of  these 
1  Montgomery,  E.  G.,  "  Corn  Crops,''  p.  199. 


248        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

double  shovel  plows  were  rigged  on  a  two-wheel  sulky, 
thus  enabling  the  operator  with  two  horses  to  cultivate 
both  sides  of  a  row  at  one  time.  The  corn  cultivator 
is  still  built  essentially  on  this  principle  with  many 
types  of  shovels  and  improvements  for  ease  in  con- 
trolling." 

One-horse  shovel  cultivators  are  still  quite  extensively 
used  in  the  cotton-belt.  They  are  usually  equipped  with 
many  small  points,  or  with  various  forms  of  heel-scrapes, 
or  sweeps.  These  one-horse  implements  are  gradually 
being  replaced  by  two-horse  cultivators.  The  double 
cultivators  are  made  either  with  handles,  as  walking 
cultivators,  or  with  a  seat,  as  riding  cultivators.  Two- 
rowed  cultivators  equipped  with  four  gangs  of  shovels 
and  drawn  by  three  horses  are  little  used  as  yet,  in  the 
cotton-belt.  These  implements  are  rapidly  coming  into 
favor  with  the  corn  growers  of  the  central  prairie 
states. 

The  kind  of  shovels  that  should  be  used  on  corn  culti- 
vators is  determined  .somewhat  by  the  character  of  the 
soil.  The  object  should  be  to  break  the  soil  between  the 
rows  thoroughly  to  the  proper  depth  without  leaving  it 
in  ridges.  This  result  is  usually  most  satisfactorily  ac- 
complished by  decreasing  the  size  of  the.  shovels  and  in- 
creasing their  number.  Sweeps  give  good  results  on 
friable  soils.  They  vary  in  width  from  six  to  thirty  inches. 
When  used  they  should  be  so- ad  justed  as  to  allow  the  soil 
to  pass  over  them  and  fall  level  behind  the  cultivator. 
Any  form  of  shovel  that  will  do  good  work  on  a  single- 
cultivator  can  be  readily  attached  to  a  double-cultivator. 

Disk  cultivators,  when  properly  operated,  do  excellent 
work,  especially  on  soils  that  are  in  poor  physical  condition 
and  need  pulverizing. 


PLANTING  AND  CULTIVATING  THE  CORN  CROP    249 

303.  The  Mclver  Williamson  method  of  corn  produc- 
tion. —  Within  recent  years  much  has  been  written  with 
reference  to  a  system  of  corn  culture  originated  by  Mclver 
Williamson  of  South  Carolina.  In  devising  this  method 
Williamson  had  for  his  primary  object  the  stunting  of 
the  corn  during  its  early  growth  so  as  to  prevent  the  pro- 
duction of  stalk  at  the  expense  of  grain.  The  essence  of 
the  Williamson  method  is  thus  summarized  by  the  Georgia 
Station : 1 

"First.  Breaking  the  land  broadcast  and  deeper  than 
is  customary.  Using  disc  plow  in  preference  to  old  two- 
horse  plow. 

"  Second.  No  fertilizer  at  or  previous  to  the  time  of 
planting,  thus  hindering  growth. 

"Third.  Rows  six  feet  apart,  plants  eleven  inches  in 
the  drill. 

"Fourth.  Feeding  the  plants  with  an  open  hand  —  thus: 
200  pounds  of  cotton-seed  meal;  200  pounds  of  acid  phos- 
phate; 400  pounds  of  kainit,  making  800  pounds  an  acre 
of  high  grade  material,  carefully  mixed.  In  addition  to 
the  800  pounds,  fed  as  the  plants  grow,  125  pounds  of 
nitrate  of  soda  per  acre  as  a  side  application. 

"Fifth.      Planting    soon    as    all    danger    of    frost    is 


"Sixth.  When  plants  are  12  to  18  inches  in  height, 
begin  to  feed  them;  then  follows  rapid  and  shallow  culti- 
vation." 

Several  stations  have  compared  the  above  method  of 
corn  production  with  the  ordinary  method  in  which  the 
fertilizers  were  added  before  planting,  and  frequent  and 
thorough  cultivation  given  from  the  start.  The  results 
of  these  tests  have  in  almost  all  cases  favored  the  ordinary 
1  Summarized  from  Bui.  97,  Ga.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta. 


250        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON  BELT 

method.     Three  years'  results  from  the  Georgia  Station 
are  given  below: 

TABLE  22.  SHOWING  CORN  YIELDS  FROM  WILLIAMSON  METHOD  AS 
COMPARED  WITH  ORDINARY  METHOD  OF  CORN  PRODUCTION  l 


METHOD 

BUSHELS  OF  SHELLED  CORN  PER  ACRE 

1908 

1909 

1910 

AVERAGE 

Ordinary  Method  
Williamson  Method.  .  .  . 

34.11 

22.87 

26.19 
34.23 

42.25 

40.78 

34.18 
32.62 

NOTE — For  complete  discussion  of  the  Williamson  method  of  corn 
culture,  see  bulletins  78,  84,  88,  and  97  of  the  Georgia  Station. 


1  Summarized  from  Bui.  97,  Ga.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
HARVESTING  AND  STORING  THE  CORN  CROP 

WITHIN  the  last  fifteen  years  much  progress  has  been 
made  in  the  methods  of  harvesting  the  corn  crop  in  the 
cotton-belt.  Yet  it  is  unquestionably  true  that  the  har- 
vesting practices  now  in  general  use  by  the  southern 
corn-growers  are  more  crude  and  unprofitable  than  those 
commonly  employed  by  farmers  in  any  other  region  of 
the  United  States.  The  primary  reasons  for  the  southern 
farmers'  relatively  slow  progress  in  corn  harvesting  meth- 
ods are:  (1)  the  limited  area  devoted  to  corn  on  the  aver- 
age cotton-belt  farm;  (2)  the  poor  adaptability  of  a  large 
percentage  of  southern  farms,  as  regards  size,  shape,  and 
topography  of  fields,  to  the  use  of  improved  machinery; 
(3)  the  excessive  height  to  which  southern  corn  grows 
under  certain  conditions,  rendering  the  use  of  the  corn 
harvester  impractical;  (4)  the  climatic  conditions  in  the 
greater  part  of  the  cotton-belt  are  more  unfavorable  to  the 
proper  field  curing  of  corn  fodder  than  in  other  regions 
of  the  United  States. 

HARVESTING   CORN 

304.  Time  of  harvesting.  —  Corn  should  be  harvested 
when  the  largest  amount  of  digestible  food  can  be 
secured.  Both  the  total  dry  weight  and  valuable  feed- 
ing nutrients  continue  to  increase  until  the  crop  is 

251 


252 


FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


mature  as  shown  by  the  following  data  from  the  Michi- 
gan Station: 

TABLE  23.    YIELD  TO  THE  ACRE  OF  DRY  WEIGHT  AND  FEEDING 
NUTRIENTS  IN  CORN 


NITRO- 

DRY 

MATTER, 
POUNDS 

PROTEIN, 
POUNDS 

GEN-FREE 
EXTRACT, 
POUNDS 

FAT, 
POUNDS 

FIBER, 
POUNDS 

Plants  in  tassel 

3,670 

472.7 

1,828 

67.9 

1,010 

Ears  in  milk  .  . 

5,320 

576.0 

3,212 

143.1 

1,148 

Ears  in  glazing 

7,110 

711.0 

4,554 

199.0 

1,294 

Ears  ripe  

8,020 

696.0 

5,356 

242.6 

1,413 

The  foregoing  data  emphasize  the  folly  of  harvesting 
corn  before  the  ears  are  hard  and  glazed,  even  though  the 
stover  is  to  be  utilized  for  feeding  stock. 

When  the  silo  first  came  into  use  it  was  thought  neces- 
sary to  fill  it  with  corn  cut  in  a  green  and  very  succulent 
condition.  Experience  has  shown  the  erroneousness  of 
this  idea.  The  best  corn  silage  is  now  made  when  the  crop 
is  allowed  to  stand  until  it  has  reached  that  degree  of  ma- 
turity indicated  by  rather  hard,  well  dented  or  glazed  ker- 
nels and  partially  dried*  husks  before  it  is  put  in  the  silo. 
At  this  stage  the  crop  still  contains  enough  water  to  pack 
sufficiently  close  in  the  silo  to  exclude  practically  all  the 
air  and  make  a  silage  of  high  quality. 

305.  Methods  of  harvesting.  —  There  are  four  meth- 
ods of  harvesting  corn  in  the  cotton-belt  as  follows: 

(1)  Stripping  the  leaves  while  green  for  forage  and 
harvesting  the  ears  later. 

(2)  Cutting  the  tops  above  the  ears  for  forage,  the  ears 
being  harvested  later. 


HARVESTING  AND  STORING  THE  CORN  CROP    253 

(3)  Harvesting  the  ears  and  leaving  stalks  and  leaves 
in  the  field. 

(4)  Harvesting  entire  plant  for  fodder  or  silage. 

306.  Effect  of  method  of  harvesting  on  yield  of  grain. — 
The  practice  of  stripping  the  blades  while  they  are  green, 
or  of  cutting  the  tops  above  the  ear  for  forage  is  espe- 
cially common  in  the  South.  These  methods  are  founded 
upon  the  belief  that  the  best  quality  of  forage  is  thus 
secured  and  the  yield  of  grain  is  not  affected,  whereas  it 
is  thought  that  harvesting  of  the  entire  plant  as  fodder 
materially  reduces  the  yield  of  grain.  These  methods 
of  harvesting  have  been  investigated  by  a  number  of 
stations,  especially  those  located  in  the  cotton-belt,  with 
the  result  that  the  loss  of  shelled  corn  from  stripping  and 
topping  while  the  leaves  are  still  green  generally  amounted 
to  10  to  20  per  cent.  This  is  not  far  from  the  average  loss 
sustained  when  the  entire  plant  is  harvested  for  fodder. 
The  Mississippi  Station,1  as  a  result  of  three  years'  trials, 
found  a  net  loss  in  feeding  value,  from  topping,  of  more 
than  20  per  cent.  The  combined  results  of  seven  other 
stations  show  an  average  loss  from  topping  of  thirteen 
bushels  an  acre,  which  was  said  to  be  "more  than  the 
feeding  value  of  the  'fodder'  secured." 

The  Florida  Station2  found  that  "pulling  fodder" 
promotes  the  ravages  of  the  weevil  by  loosening  the  husks 
on  the  ear  before  the  grains  become  hard. 

If  the  practice  of  "topping"  corn  or  of  "  stripping  " 
the  blades  is  deferred  until  the  kernels  have  become 
hard  and  glazed  as  indicated  by  the  husks  and  a  large 
percentage  of  the  lower  leaves  having  dried  up  the  yield 
of  grain  may  be  decreased  very  little  if  at  all.  In  this 

1  Miss.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.,  33,  p.  53. 

2  Fla.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.,  16,  p.  8. 


254        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

event,  however,  the  quality  of  the  forage  would  be  very 
poor. 

The  Alabama  Station  has  investigated  the  yields  of 
corn  from  different  methods  of  harvesting  with  the  results 
shown  in  the  following  table: 


TABLE  24.    YIELDS  TO  THE  ACRE    OF  CORN    FROM    DIFFERENT 
METHODS   OF  HARVESTING  l 


METHODS  OF 
HARVESTING 

CORN  PER  ACRE  —  BUSHELS 

1896 

1897 

1900 

1904 

Average 
4  years 

Average 
loss 

Only  ears  harvested  .  .  . 
Tops  cut  and  ears  har- 
vested 

34.4 
30.2 
29.2 

31.0 
29.2 
29.5 

46.9 
44.3 
44.3 
45.9 

25.7 
26.1 
25.4 
25.5 

34.5 
32.5 
32.1 

2.0 
2.4 

Entire    plant    cut    and 
shocked 

Blades  stripped  and  ears 
harvested  

307.  Yields  of  forage  by  different  methods  of  harvest- 
ing corn.  —  The  decrease  in  yield  of  grain  due  to  pulling 
the  blades  or  cutting  the  tops  from  corn  is  not  the  only 
objectional  feature  about  these  methods.  They  are  slow, 
laborious  and  expensive  methods  of  securing  forage.  The 
yield  of  forage  to  the  acre  seldom  justifies  the  expenditure 
in  labor.  With  the  present  advance  in  the  price  of 
farm  labor,  it  is  quite  evident  that  corn-growers  can 
no  longer  adhere  to  these  unprofitable  practices.  The 
same  amount  of  time  expended  in  growing  and  har- 
vesting hay  crops  will  be  much  more  remunerative. 
Yields  of  cured  corn  tops,  stover  and  blades  from  the 
different  methods  of  harvesting  are  reported  by  the 
Alabama  Station: 


1  Ala.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  134,  p.  190. 


HARVESTING  AND  STORING  THE  CORN  CROP    255 
TABLE  25.    YIELDS  OF  CUBED  CORN  TOPS,  STOVER  AND  BLADES  l 


METHODS  OF 
HARVESTING 

AVERAGE 
YIELD  OF 
GRAIN, 
Bu. 

YIELDS  OF  FORAGE  TO  THE  ACRE  —  POUNDS 

1896 

1897 

1900 

1904 

AVERAGE 

Only  ears  harvested  . 
Tops    cut    and    ears 
harvested 

34.5 
32.5 

32.1 

312 
2103 

509 
1355 

711 

1759 
615 

360 

1980 
415 

473  tops 

1799  stover 
515  blades 

Entire  stalk  cut  and 
ears         afterwards 
harvested  
Blades   stripped   and 
ears  harvested 

With  the  yields  of  grain  given  above,  which  are  far  above 
the  average  for  the  cotton-belt  states,  less  than  one-fourth 
ton  of  tops  is  secured  from  an  acre  and  approximately 
one-fourth  ton  of  blades.  The  value  of  the  forage  thus 
secured  cannot  compensate  for  the  loss  of  grain  and  the 
cost  of  harvesting. 

308.  Cutting  and  shocking  the  entire  plant.  —  Experi- 
ments conducted  by  the  Alabama  Station  indicate  that 
cutting  and  shocking  corn  is  more  profitable  than  "top- 
ping."   If  done  at  the  proper  time,  the  yield  of  grain  is 
not  materially  decreased.    By  this  method  all  the  forage 
is  saved  at  a  minimum  expense  and  the  early  use  of  the 
land  for  the  next  crop  is  secured.  Also  the  old  stalks  are 
not  left  on  the  land  to  interfere  with  the  seeding  of  small 
grain.    Farmers  in  the  more  humid  sections  of  the  cotton- 
belt  are  somewhat  averse  to  cutting  and  shocking  corn 
owing  to  the  danger  of  losing  the  crop  by  " rotting"  before 
it  can  be  shredded  or  otherwise  housed  from  the  weather. 
This  danger  can  be  much  reduced  by  decreasing  both  the 
size  of  the  bundles  and  the  size  of  the  shocks. 

309.  Harvesting  the  ears  only.  —  In  sections  where 
hay  is  easily  and  cheaply  produced,  harvesting  only  the 


1  Ala.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  134,  p.  190. 


256        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

ears  and  leaving  the  leaves  and  stalks  to  be  subsequently 
pastured  or  to  be  plowed  into  the  soil,  is  highly  commend- 
able. The  ears  may  be  husked  directly  from  the  standing 
stalks  and  thrown  into  a  wagon  at  the  same  operation. 
A  "throwboard"  about  30  inches  high  should  be  put  on 
the  wagon-box  on  the  side  opposite  the  husker.  This 


FIG.  40.  —  Corn  harvesting  tools:  1,  corn  hook;  2  and  3,  corn  knives; 
4,  a  sled  cutter;  5,  cutter  having  wheels  substituted  for  the  runners 
and  equipped  with  a  seat. 

is  the  method  most  generally  used  throughout  the  corn- 
belt  states. 

310.  Hand  methods  of  cutting  corn.  —  When  cutting 
and  shocking  is  resorted  to  in  the  cotton-belt  the  cutting 
is  usually  done  by  hand.  Various  types  of  hand  cutters 
are  used.  The  short-handled  hoe  probably  came  into 
use  first.  Later  various  types  of  corn  knives  and  corn 
" hooks"  were  used.  Some  of  these  simple  devices  are 
shown  in  Fig.  40.  Where  the  area  to  cut  does  not  exceed 
twenty  acres  or  where  the  corn  is  very  tall,  hand-cutting 


HARVESTING  AND  STORING  THE  CORN  CROP    257 

is  more  profitable  than  maintaining  expensive  machinery 
for  the  purpose.  In  fact,  where  farm  labor  is  not  excep- 
tionally high  harvesting  even  larger  areas  by  hand  is  al- 
most as  cheap  as  harvesting  by  machinery.  The  advan- 
tage of  the  machine  is  that  it  enables  the  operation  to 
be  completed  in  a  shorter  time. 

311.  Comparative  cost  of  harvesting  by  different 
methods.  —  Zintheo  *  has  made  a  study  of  the  com- 
parative cost  of  harvesting  corn  by  different  methods. 
The  following  data  were  obtained  from  the  corn-belt  where 
an  average  yield  of  44  bushels  to  the  acre  was  being  secured : 

TABLE  26.    COST  OF  HARVESTING  BY  DIFFERENT  METHODS 
Average  data  for  harvesting  by  hand 

Cost  of  implement $     1.00 

Acres  one  man  harvests  per  day 1 . 47 

Cost  of  cutting  and  shocking 1 . 50  an  acre 

Average  data  for  harvesting  with  sled  harvester 

Cost  of  implement $5  to  $50 

Acres  two  men  and  one  horse  harvest  per  day 4 . 67 

Cost  of  cutting  and  shocking 1 . 18  an  acre 

Average  data  for  harvesting  with  corn  binder 

Cost  of  implement • $125.00 

Acres  cut  per  day  by  one  man  and  three  horses ....       7 . 73 

Acres  shocked  per  day,  one  man 3.31 

Cost  of  cutting  and  shocking 1 . 50  an  acre 

Cost  per  bushel  of  picking  and  husking  corn 

Cents 

By  hand  from  field 3.5 

Team  for  cribbing 1 . 

By  hand  from  shock 5.3 

Team  for  cribbing .79 

By  corn  picker  from  field 4.1 

By  huskers  and  shredder  from  shock 4.5 

1 U.  S.  Dep't  of  Agr.,  Office  of  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  173. 


258        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

312.  Corn     harvesting     machinery.  —  The     simplest 
horse-drawn  implement  for  harvesting  corn  is  the  sled 
cutter,  Fig.  40.     One  type  of  sled  cutter  consists  of  an 
ordinary  sled  with  a  heavy  knife  attached  in  front  at  the 
proper  height  to  cut  off  the  corn  plants.     It  is  drawn 
astride  of  the  corn  row.    Other  types  have  a  heavy  knife 
attached  to  one  or  both  sides  and  are  drawn  between  the 
rows  of  plants.    A  further  improvement  is  the  use  of  small 
wheels  in  place  of  sled  runners.    This  greatly  reduces  the 
draft  of  pulling  the  cutter.    Usually  a  man  on  each  side 
catches  the  stalks  as  they  are  cut.    When  an  armful  has 
been  obtained  the  horse  is  stopped  and  the  fodder  put 
on  the  nearest  shock.    These  simple  horse  drawn  cutters 
can  be  constructed  on  the  farm  at  little  expense.    As  there 
is  no  expense  for  twine  or  repairs,  they  furnish  one  of  the 
most  economical  means  of  harvesting  the  corn  crop. 

About  1895  the  corn  binder  came  into  use.  This  ma- 
chine binds  the  plants  into  bundles  of  convenient  size;  on 
it  is  a  bundle-carrier  attachment  that  bunches  the  bundles, 
whereby  shocking  and  loading  are  greatly  facilitated. 
For  cutting  corn  of  medium  or  small  size  on  land  that  is 
comparatively  level  and  free  of  stumps,  the  corn  binder 
is  very  satisfactory.  On  the  rich  river  bottom  soils  of 
the  cotton-belt  the  corn  grows  so  tall  and  bears  its  ears  so 
high  on  the  stalk  as  to  render  the  use  of  the  corn  binder 
impractical. 

By  attaching  a  " stubble  cutter"  to  the  corn  binder  one 
may  cut  the  corn  stubs  as  the  plants  are  harvested.  This 
is  an  excellent  practice  as  it  not  only  hastens  the  decay 
of  the  stubble  but  leaves  the  ground  in  an  excellent  con- 
dition for  the  succeeding  crop. 

313.  Shocking    corn.  —  Two    important    precautions 
must  be  taken  in  shocking  corn  in  the  humid  sections  of 


HARVESTING  AND  STORING  THE  CORN  CROP    259 

the  cotton-belt:  (1)  the  plants  must  be  tied  in  small  bun- 
dles if  the  binder  is  used;  (2)  the  shocks  must  be  small. 
When  cured  the  fodder  may  be  put  in  large  shocks  or 
stacked.  It  is  of  paramount  importance  that  the  shocks 
be  so  made  and  tied  that  they  will  stand  erect  and  keep 
the  fodder  dry.  A  shocking  horse,  Fig.  41,  is  very  service- 
able for  shocking  where  the  corn  is  cut  either  by  hand  or 


FIG.  41.  —  A  corn-shocking  horse. 

with  the  binder.  If  a  shocking  horse  is  not  available, 
the  stalks  of  four  adjoining  hills  may  be  twisted  together 
at  proper  intervals  through  the  field.  These  four  stalks 
will  then  form  "gallowses"  to  support  the  plants  in  the 
beginning  of  the  shock.  When  one  cuts  corn  by  hand  for 
small  shocks,  many  unnecessary  steps  can  be  saved  by 
following  the  system  outlined  in  Fig.  42.  Hills  1  to  8  make 
the  first  arm  load  and  should  be  cut  in  consecutive  order. 
Likewise  hills  9  to  16  make  the  second  arm  load  and 


260 


FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


so  on  as  indicated  until  the  64  hills  have  been  cut  and 
shocked. 

314.  Husking  corn.  —  Much  of  the  cprn  in  the  South 
is  stored  unhusked  owing  to  the  somewhat  prevalent 
belief  that  the  husks  serve  as  a  partial  protection  from 
the  grain-weevil.  The  correctness  of  this  belief  is  doubtful 
as  more  weevils  are  transferred  to  the  crib  with  the  un- 


36           35           34           33     I      26           27 

58           57 

37           38           39 

30           29           26 

59           56 

321 

31           32           25 

60           55 

458 
40     1      6             7 

: 

23           22           54 
24           21           20 

41           46 

J9             16           15 

17           18           19 

42           45 

10           13           14 

53           52           51 

43           44 

.11           12      1     47           48           49           60 

FIG.  42.  —  Illustrating  a  method  of  cutting  and  shock- 
ing checked  corn  to  economize  steps. 

husked  ears  than  where  the  husks  are  removed  at  a  time 
previous  to  storing. 

Where  husking  is  done  before  storing  one  of  the  follow- 
ing practices  is  employed,  according  to  the  method  of 
harvesting  the  crop:  (1)  the  ears  jerked  and  afterwards 
husked;  (2)  ears  husked  from  the  standing  stalks;  (3)  ears 
husked  from  the  shock;  (4)  ears  husked  by  means  of 
shredder.  A  very  convenient  way  Is  to  husk  from  the 
standing  stalks,  the  ears  being  thrown  directly  into  a 
wagon  equipped  with  a  throwboard.  Jerking  the  corn 
and  afterwards  husking  it  requires  much  additional  labor, 


HARVESTING  AND  STORING  THE  CORN  CROP    261 

the  cost  of  which  cannot  be  offset  by  the  amount  of  forage 
furnished  by  the  husks.  When  husking  is  done  from  the 
standing  stalks,  " lands"  should  be  laid  out  and  driven 
around  so  that  the  buskers  are  always  on  the  same  side 
of  the  wagon.  This  avoids  husking  many  rows  that  have 
been  broken  down  by  the  wagon. 
Convenient  forms  of  husking  pegs 
and  hooks,  are  shown  in  Fig.  43. 

315.  Shredding  corn.  —  The  use 
of  the  corn  shredder  in  the  cotton- 
belt  is  very  limited.    This  machine 
takes  the  stalks  with  the  ears  and 

husks  and  delivers  the  ears  to  a      former  is  used  for  husk- 
ing fodder  corn,  the  lat- 

basket  for  storing,  and  shreds  the  ter  for  husking  standing 
stalks  for  feeding.  The  shredded 

stover  is  delivered  to  the  loft,  usually  by  means  of  a 
blowpipe.  In  the  cotton-belt  shredding  should  never  be 
done  except  when  the  fodder  is  very  dry;  otherwise  the 
shredded  fodder  will  heat.  It  should  always  be  stored 
under  shelter  after  shredding. 

Many  advantages  are  derived  from  shredding  corn 
rather  than  feeding  it  whole,  chief  of  which  are:  (1)  if 
may  be  fed  with  much  less  waste,  it  being  estimated  that 
"  shredded  stover  will  go  40  per  cent  farther  in  feeding 
cattle  than  the  whole  stalks;"  (2)  it  puts  the  stover  in  a 
convenient  form  for  storing  and  for  feeding;  (3)  the 
troublesome  work  of  handling  manure  in  which  there 
are  long  coarse  stalks  is  avoided;  (4)  the  ears  are  husked 
with  little  expense. 

STORING   CORN 

316.  Cribs.  —  Corn  ears  are  usually  stored  in  cribs 
or  bins  although  rail  pens  are  used  for  this  purpose  in 


262        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

some  sections.  Storing  corn  in  rail  pens  is  not  to  be 
commended. 

The  principal  aims  to  be  kept  in  mind  in  constructing 
corn-cribs  in  the  cotton-belt  vary  somewhat  with  condi- 
tions. In  sections  where  weevil  damage  is  not  great,  the 
primary  objects  should  be  good  ventilation  and  protection 
from  rodents,  such  as  rats  and  mice.  Ventilation  is  usually 
secured  by  constructing  the  sides  of  the  crib  of  narrow 
slats  nailed  in  a  horizontal  position  on  the  inside  of  the 
framing.  Ventilated  sheet-iron  cribs  are  now  on  the  mar- 
ket. Cribs  are  made  rodent-proof  in  the  process  of  con- 
struction by  tacking  wire  netting  of  about  one-fourth  inch 
mesh  over  the  sleepers,  the  inside  of  the  uprights,  and  to 
the  joists;  the  crib  is  thus  lined  completely  with  this 
material.  The  wire  netting  is  held  in  place  by  putting 
the  flooring  and  side  strips  on  over  it,  and  tacking  the  wire 
well  to  the  joists.  The  floor  should  be  at  least  20  inches 
from  the  ground  to  give  good  ventilation  and  avoid  mak- 
ing a  hiding  place  for  rats. 

Where  weevils  damage  the  stored  corn,  the  cribs  should 
be  tightly  constructed  so  as  to  permit  of  the  successful 
use  of  an  insecticide.  In  storing  corn  in  close  cribs  one 
should  take  precautions  to  see  that  the  ears  are  well  dried 
out;  otherwise  dampness  and  lack  of  ventilation  will  cause 
the  grain  to  rot  in  the  crib.  The  treatment  of  stored  grain 
to  prevent  weevil  damage  is  discussed  in  the  chapter  on 
insect  enemies  of  corn. 

317.  Shrinkage  of  stored  corn.  —  Stored  corn  may 
lose  in  weight  after  being  stored,  amounting  to  5  to  20 
per  cent,  due  primarily  to  the  loss  of  water.  The  amount 
of  loss  depends  upon  the  moisture  content  of  the  corn 
when  stored,  the  length  of  the  storage  period  and  the 
humidity  of  the  atmosphere  during  storage.  An  average 


HARVESTING  AND  STORING  THE  CORN  CROP    263 


of  eight  years'  results  on  the  shrinkage  of  stored  corn  at 
the  Iowa  Station  is  given: 

TABLE  27.    AVERAGE  OF  EIGHT  YEARS'  RESULTS  ON  SHRINKAGE 
OF  STORED  CORN  AT  THE  IOWA  STATION,  GIVEN  BY  MONTHS 


MONTH 

AVERAGE  SHRINKAGE 
(PER  CENT) 

AVERAGE  SHRINKAGE 
PER  MONTH 
(PER  CENT) 

November  

5  2 

5.2 

December  
January 

6.9 

7  5 

1.7 
6 

February  •  

7.8 

3 

March  

9  7 

1  9 

April  
May                       ..-,-. 

12.8 
14  7 

3.1 
1  9 

June  

16  3 

1  6 

July 

17  3 

1  0 

August 

17  8 

5 

September  

18.2 

.4 

October.  .  .  

18.2 

.0 

318.  Measuring  corn  in  the  crib.  —  A  rule  for  measur- 
ing corn  in  the  crib  can  be  only  approximately  correct  as  the 
moisture  content  and  hence  the  weight  per  unit  volume  of 
stored  corn  varies  considerably.  Usually  a  bushel  of  husked 
ear-corn  will  occupy  approximately  2J^  cubic  feet  of  space. 
C.  S.  Plumb  in  his  book  on  "  Indian  Corn  Culture  "  gives  the 
following  rule  for  measuring  husked  ear-corn  in  the  crib: 
"Multiply  the  length,  breadth  and  height  of  the  crib  to- 
gether in  feet  to  obtain  the  cubic  feet  of  space  it  contains. 
Multiply  this  product  by  four  (4),  strike  off  the  right-hand 
figure,  and  the  result  will  be  the  number  of  shelled  bushels." 
This  rule  really  figures  2J^  cubic  feet  of  corn  as  a  bushel. 
The  legal  weight  of  a  bushel  of  corn  when  dry  and  sound  is 
56  pounds  of  shelled  corn  or  70  pounds  of  ear-corn. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

ANIMAL  AND  INSECT  ENEMIES  AND  FUNGOUS 
DISEASES  OF  CORN 

COKN  is  preyed  on  by  numerous  enemies,  including 
crows,  rodents,  insects,  and  fungi.  Seldom  do  any  of 
these  destroy  the  entire  crop.  The  corn  crop  is  more 
easily  protected  from  its  enemies  than  are  most  other 
important  crops. 

ANIMAL  ENEMIES 

319.  Treatment.  —  Rodents  of  different  kinds,  par- 
ticularly ground  squirrels,  sometimes  dig  up  and  eat  the 
seeds  of  corn  soon  after  planting.  As  a  partial  preventive 
of  this  injury  the  seed  may  be  treated  with  coal  tar  before 
it  is  planted.  The  usual  method  is  to  stir  the  seed  with  a 
paddle  that  has  been  dipped  in  hot  coal  tar.  This  practice 
is  repeated  until  every  seed  is  covered  with  a  thin  coating 
of  the  tar.  The  seed  is  allowed  to  dry  before  being  planted. 
Corn  that  has  been  soaked  in  a  strychnine  solution  may 
be  planted  a  few  days  ahead  of  the  regular  planting,  thus 
poisoning  the  rodents. 

Crows  do  some  damage,  particularly  in  regions  where 
the  acreage  in  corn  is  comparatively  small.  In  order  to  get 
the  kernels  they  pull  up  the  young  plants  for  a  period  of 
ten  days  after  the  plants  appear  above  ground.  Usually 
they  will  not  trouble  a  field  for  several  days  after  a  few  of 
them  have  been  poisoned.  Corn  that  has  been  soaked  for  a 
day  or  two  in  a  strychnine  solution  should  be  placed  about 

264 


ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  CORN  265 

the  field  soon  after  the  crop  is  planted  and  before  the  crows 
begin  their  depredations.  Alcohol  dissolves  strychnine 
more  readily  than  water  and  its  use  is  therefore  recom- 
mended. In  small  fields,  scarecrows,  or  a  string  stretched 
over  the  field  with  pieces  of  paper  attached  at  frequent 
intervals,  are  rather  effective. 

INSECT  ENEMIES 

320.  Causes.  —  Insect  injuries  to  corn  are  more  com- 
mon in  the  southern  states  than  in  the  northern  states. 
The  larger  number  of  these  injuries  are  due  to  the  continu- 
ous cultivation  of  corn  on  the  same  land  for  a  number  of 
years.     They  also  occur  more  frequently  after  plowing 
up  sod  land  of  long  standing.    Hence  an  important  feature 
in  the  control  of  many  of  the  insect  enemies  of  corn  is 
the  adoption  of  short  systematic  rotations  accompanied 
by  clean  culture  of  the  intertilled  crops  in  the  rotation. 

321.  Corn    bud-worms     (Diabrotica    12-punctata) .  — 
These  slender  worms  represent  the  larval  stage  of  a  small 
beetle  commonly  known  as  the  twelve-spotted  lady  bug. 
These  beetles  are  about  one-third  inch  long,  and  yellowish 
green  with  twelve  black  spots  on  the  wing  coverings.    The 
larvae  are  slender  thread-like  yellowish  white  worms  with 
a  brownish  head.    They  are  about  one-half  inch  long.    The 
winter  is  passed  in  the  adult  stage  under  rubbish  or  trash 
or  any  material  that  will  furnish  adequate  shelter.    The 
life  history  of  the  corn  bud-worm  is  briefly  summarized 
by  Sherman  as  follows: 

"The  adults  pass  the  winter,  emerge  very  late  in  the 
spring,  feeding  on  flowers  and  foliage,  mate,  and  lay  eggs 
at  the  base  of  corn  or  other  plants  in  which  the  worms 
feed;  the  worms  on  hatching  from  the  eggs,  burrow  into 
the  root  or  stalk  of  the  plant  attacked,  become  grown  in 


266        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

a  few  weeks,  leave  the  plant  and  change  to  the  pupa  stage 
in  the  earth  close  by,  from  which  the  beetles  emerge  one 
to  two  weeks  later.  Several  broods  are  produced  in  the 
course  of  a  season."  1 

The  bud-worm  injures  the  corn  plants  during  their 
early  growth,  particularly  when  they  are  from  one  to  ten 
inches  high.  It  is  worse  on  low  moist  bottom  lands. 

Preventive  measures  are  based  largely  on  the  time  of 
planting.  Lands  subject  to  the  ravages  of  this  insect 
should  not  be  planted  until  rather  late  in  the  season. 
Some  farmers  insist  that  bud-worm  injury  can  be  escaped 
by  either  very  early  or  very  late  planting.  Unquestionably 
the  corn  planted  in  midseason  suffers  most.  Any  treat- 
ment that  stimulates  a  rapid  growth  of  the  plants  seems 
to  reduce  the  injury  from  bud- worms.  Small  amounts 
of  nitrate  of  soda  are  sometimes  applied  at  planting  time 
for  this  purpose. 

322.  Cut- worms  (Noctuidce).  —  There  are  several  spe- 
cies of  cut-worms  that  injure  corn.  They  are  all  thick- 
bodied  caterpillars  of  a  brown,  blackish,  or  grayish  color, 
and  constitute  the  larval  stage  of  night-flying  moths. 
During  the  winter  months  the  larvae  rest  in  an  inactive 
state  in  the  soil.  When  spring  comes  they  feed  on  any 
green,  succulent  young  plants  that, they  can  find.  They  eat 
off  the  young  corn  plants  near  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
often  dragging  the  cut  plants  partially  into  the  soil.  Most 
of  their  injury  is  done  at  night  unless  the  weather  is  cloudy, 
in  which  case  they  work  during  the  day  also.  They  are 
worse  on  sod  land  or  land  that  has  borne  a  heavy  crop  of 
weeds. 

For  combating  or  evading  cut-worms  the  important 
remedial  measures  are:  (1)  Early  fall  or  winter  plowing 
1  N.  C.  Dep't  of  Agr.,  Bui.  196,  p.  23. 


ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  CORN  267 

thus  destroying  the  larvae  while  they  are  hibernating; 
(2)  moderately  late  planting  which,  to  an  extent,  escapes 
the  early  crop  of  caterpillars;  (3)  early  and  frequent  culti- 
vation which  seems  to  disturb  the  cut-worms  and  thus 
check  their  ravages;  (4)  poisoning,  by  scattering  clover 
or  wheat  bran  that  has  been  treated  with  paris-green  or 
arsenate  of  lead,  over  the  fields  as  a  bait.  Usually  a  mash 
is  made  of  bran,  paris-green  and  water  and  sweetened  with 
molasses.  This  preparation  is  eaten  readily  by  the  worms 
and  is  very  destructive. 

323.  Wire- worms  (Elateridce) .  —  These  slender,  smooth, 
firm-bodied  worms  are  the  larvae  of  the  beetles  com- 
monly called  "Jack-snappers,"  " Hominy-beaters "  or 
"  Thumping-beaters."  The  larvae  are  of  yellowish  brown 
color  and  range  from  one  to  two  inches  in  length.  The 
eggs  are  usually  deposited  in  sod  land,  each  generation 
requiring  from  three  to  five  years  to  reach  complete 
maturity.  Wire-worms  may  injure  corn  by  eating  the 
seed  before  it  comes  up,  or  by  feeding  on  the  roots  or 
" drilling"  into  the  stalks  just  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  The  latter  injury  causes  the  center  of  the  growing 
plant  to  die.  They  are  worse  on  low  lands  or  lands  having 
been  in  sod. 

In  sections  where  wire-worms  are  destructive  the  low 
sod  lands  should  be  planted  in  some  crop  other  than  corn 
for  one  or  two  years  after  it  is  first  plowed.  If  this  cannot 
be  done  the  sod  should  be  plowed  in  the  fall  and  disked 
thoroughly  once  or  twice  during  the  winter.  This  treat- 
ment will  either  starve  or  kill  by  exposure  many  of  the 
larvae.  Any  treatment,  such  as  good  fertilization  or 
thorough  and  frequent  tillage,  that  stimulates  growth  will 
enable  the  corn  to  recover  more  quickly  from  the  attacks 
of  wire-worms. 


268        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

324.  The  corn  ear- worm  (Helioihis  obsoleta) .  —  The 
description,  habits  and  life  history  of  this  insect  are  given 
in  paragraphs  160  to  164,  on  the  cotton  boll-worm  which  is 
the  same  insect  as  the  corn  ear-worm.    The  eggs  being  laid 
on  the  silks,  "the  larvae  work  down  the  silk,  or  bore  directly 
through  the  husk  to  the  forming  ear,  where  they  feed  on 
the  kernels  and  soon  attain  full  growth,  when  they  burrow 
out  through  the  husk  and  enter  the  ground  to  pupate."  1 
The  injury  is  not  due  alone  to  the  loss  of  the  kernels  eaten 
but  also  to  the  fact  that  the  burrows  admit  water  to  the 
ear  causing  it  to  rot.    No  absolute  remedy  is  known.    Fall 
and  early  winter  plowing  is  recommended  in  that  it  de- 
stroys some  of  the  insects  while  in  the  pupa  stage. 

325.  Chinch  bugs   (Blissus  leucopterus) .  —  These  in- 
sects are  described  as  "small  bugs  about  one-fifth  inch 
long,  blackish  with  white  wings,  the  young  bugs  reddish." 
The  adults  live  over  winter  in  grass  or  rubbish  of  any  kind. 
When  spring  comes  they  fly  in  search  of  food,  usually 
congregating  in  fields  of  small-grain  where  the  eggs  are 
deposited.     The  young  bugs  feed  and  grow  to  maturity 
on  the  small-grain.    As  the  crop  ripens  the  bugs  go  into 
corn  fields  in  further  search  of  food.     Here  the  second 
brood  of  young  develops.     By  means  of  their  beaks  the 
bugs  suck  the  juices  from  the  corn  plants. 

It  is  during  the  time  that  the  chinch  bugs  are  passing 
from  the  fields  of  small-grain  to  corn  that  they  are  most 
easily  destroyed.  In  making  this  trip  the  bugs  do  not  fly, 
but  walk  or  crawl  on  the  ground.  If  one  or  two  deep 
furrows  are  plowed  around  the  small-grain  fields,  the  dirt 
being  thrown  toward  the  field  in  which  the  bugs  are  con- 
gregated, an  effective  barrier  against  the  insects  is  formed. 
Farmers  often  dig  holes  twenty  feet  apart  in  the  bottom  of 
i  N.  C.  Dep't  of  Agr.,  Bui.  196,  p.  46. 


ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  CORN 


269 


these  furrows,  a  practice  that  makes  them  still  more  effect- 
ive. The  bugs  crawl  into  the  furrows  and  then  along  the 
bottom,  finally  falling  into  the  holes  from  which  they  can- 
not escape.  Putting  a  strip  of  tar  around  the  field  serves 
the  same  purpose.  When  furrows  are 
used  the  soil  in  the  furrow  should  be 
kept  well  pulverized.  A  heavy  rain 
may  destroy  the  effectiveness  of  the 
barrier,  necessitating  immediate  re- 
plowing  or  dragging  a  log  in  the 
furrow. 

All  grass  and  rubbish  adjacent  to 
corn  fields  should  be  burned  during 
the  winter  as  it  is  here  that  the  bugs 
seem  to  hibernate. 

326.  Grain  moths  and  weevils.  — 
Several  species  of  small  moths  and 
weevils  injure  stored,  corn.  Some  of 
these  do  damage  even  before  the  grain 
is  harvested  while  others  may  affect 
certain  corn  products  such  as  meal  and 
bran.  Of  the  grain  moths  the  Indian 
meal  snout  moth  (Plodia  interpunctella) 
andtheAngumois  grain-moth  (Sitotroga 
cerealettd)  are  the  most  important.  By 
far  the  most  destructive  of  the  grain 
weevils  is  the  rice-weevil  (Calandra 
oryza)  commonly  known  as  the  "  black 
weevil."  These  insects  lay  their  eggs  either  on  or  in  the 
grain  or  husks  and  the  larvae  eat  into  the  kernels  (Fig.  44). 
There  is  no  absolute  means  of  preventing  or  remedying  the 
attacks  of  weevils  on  corn  in  the  field.  The  injury  can  be 
somewhat  decreased  by  planting  late  varieties  and  par- 


FIG.  44.  —  Ear  of  corn 
showing  character- 
istic injury  by  the 
corn-weevil. 


'270        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

ticularly  those  with  hard  grains.  The  selection  of  seed 
with  the  idea  of  getting  a  husk  that  fits  tightly  over 
the  end  of  the  ear  has  been  found  to  decrease  weevil 
injury. 

The  most  effective  means  of  fighting  the  grain  weevils 
or  moths  is  that  of  fumigating  the  stored  grain  with  the 
vapors  of  carbon-disulfide  (CS2),  which  is  a  very  volatile, 
colorless  liquid.  In  order  that  this  method  may  be  used 
successfully,  the  grain  must  be  stored  in  a  bin  or  crib 
having  unusually  tight  floors,  walls,  and  roof  so  that  the 
vapors  will  be  confined  until  they  have  thoroughly  pen- 
etrated the  entire  mass  of  grain.  Hinds  1  states  that  "it 
requires  at  least  forty-five  minutes'  exposure  to  a  very 
strong  gas  to  kill  the  black  weevil  adults  and  the  smaller 
brown  beetles  are  still  more  resistant."  The  amount  of 
carbon-disulfide  to  use  to  a  1000  cubic  feet  of  volume  to  be 
fumigated  is  from  ten  to  twelve  pounds  for  a  very  tight 
crib  to  twenty-five  pounds  for  one  that  is  moderately  tight. 
The  liquid  may  be  placed  in  shallow  pans  on  top  of  the 
corn  or  it  may  be  poured  in  small  holes  about  the  surface 
made  by  pulling  out  a  few  ears.  It  evaporates  very  rapidly 
and  the  vapors  being  heavier  than  air  diffuse  downward 
through  the  grain.  The  treatment  will  not  injure  the 
grain  either  for  food  or  seed.  Immediately  after  the  treat- 
ment the  crib  should  be  tightly  closed.  The  vapors  of 
carbon-disulfide,  when  mixed  with  air  form  a  gas  that  is 
easily  exploded  if  brought  in  contact  with  fire.  All  lighted 
cigars,  cigarettes,  lanterns,  and  the  like,  must  be  kept  away 
while  the  fumigating  is  being  done. 

FUNGOUS  DISEASES 

Corn  is  remarkably  free  from  fungous  diseases.     The 
1  Ala.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  176,  p.  65. 


ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  CORN 


271 


ones   of   importance   are   corn-smut    (Ustilago  zed)    and 
different  kinds  of  ear-rots. 

327.  Corn-smut  (Fig.  45)  often  causes  enormous  en- 
largements on  the  ear,  tassel,  or  stem  of  the  corn  plant. 
The  infection  usually  does 
not  occur  until  the  plants 
are  a  foot  or  more  high. 
The  spores  of  the  disease 
are  carried  over  in  the 
soil  so  that  when  land 
becomes  infected  with 
corn-smut  it  is  likely  to 
injure  the  crop  each  year 
unless  some  crop  other 
than  corn  be  grown,  or 
unless  precautions  are 
taken  to  cut  out  and  burn 
all  infected  plants  before 
the  smut-balls  reach  that 
stage  of  development  at 
which  the  skin  breaks  and 
sets  free  the  spores.  The  disease  may  also  be  carried  from 
year  to  year  in  manure  which  has  been  made  from  feed- 
ing the  diseased  plants.  No  treatment  of  the  seed  is 
effective. 


FIG.  45.  —  Corn-smut. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
OATS  (Avena  saliva) 

THE  oat  plant  is  a  grass  grown  for  both  grain  and  forage. 
It  is  used  largely  in  connection  with  or  interchangeably 
with  corn.  Its  principal  use  is  as  a  food  for  horses,  although 
its  use  as  a  food  for  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine  is  very  general. 
The  oat  grain  when  made  into  oatmeal  and  other  cereal 
dishes  constitutes  an  important  human  food. 

328.  Origin  and  botanical  classification.  —  The  nativ- 
ity of  the  oat  plant  is  rather  uncertain,  but  from  the  avail- 
able evidence  it  is  thought  to  be  Tartary  in  western  Asia, 
or  eastern  Europe.  It  came  into  use  at  a  much  later  date 
than  did  wheat  and  barley.  The  early  literature  of  China, 
India,  and  other  ancient  countries  of  southern  Asia  make 
no  mention  of  oats  and  it  is  quite  certain  that  this  cereal 
was  of  minor  importance  in  the  early  nurture  of  the  human 
race. 

The  botanical  classification  of  the  cultivated  oat  is 
shown:  Order  —  Gramineae;  tribe  —  Avense;  genus  — 
Avena;  species  —  sativa. 

Botanists  have  in  the  past  usually  held  that  all  varieties 
of  domesticated  oats  have  descended  from  the  wild  oat, 
Avena  fatua,  a  cold  climate  oat,  which  species  is  character- 
ized by  the  fact  that  the  second  flower  separates  easily 
from  the  axis  on  which  it  is  borne,  leaving  the  axis  attached 
to  the  first  flower.  In  other  wild  species,  notably  Avena 
sterilis,  the  second  flower,  when  disarticulated,  carries 

272 


OATS  273 

with  it  the  axis  on  which  it  was  borne.  Trabut  l  has  re- 
cently  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  many  cultivated 
varieties  of  oats,  particularly  those  grown  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean region,  trace  back  to  A .  sterilis  rather  than  A .  fatua; 
also  that  the  wild  species  A.  barbata,  a  dry-region  oat 
common  throughout  much  of  northern  Africa,  has  given 
rise  to  some  cultivated  forms.  The  special  adaptations 
of  the  descendants  of  these  wild  types  are  given  in  the 
following  quotation  from  Trabut: 

"  Avena  fatua  gives  rise  to  oats  adapted  to  temperate  and 
mountainous  regions;  Avena  sterilis,  to  oats  adapted  to  the 
southern  countries,  and  to  saline  soils;  Avena  barbata,  to 
races  adapted  to  dry  countries." 

The  oat  varieties  of  the  southern  United  States  are  all 
descendants  of  Avena  fatua.  Among  those  who  have  given 
special  study  to  the  genetic  history  of  oats  some  believe 
that  oat  production  in  the  South  could  be  made  more  prof- 
itable by  the  introduction  and  acclimatization  of  some  of 
the  cultivated  descendants  of  Avena  slerilis. 

STRUCTURE  AND    COMPOSITION   OF   THE   OAT 

329.  The  plant.  —  The  oat  plant  varies  in  height  from 
two  to  five  feet.  The  culms  are  hollow  with  closed  joints. 
At  each  joint  on  the  stem  is  borne  a  leaf  consisting  of  leaf- 
sheath  and  blade.  The  sheath  splits  open  on  the  side 
opposite  the  blade.  The  auricles,  present  in  all  other 
small-grains  at  the  junction  of  the  blade  and  sheath,  are 
either  absent  or  suppressed  in  oats.  The  leaf-blade  of 
the  oat  plant  is  broader  than  that  of  wheat  or  rye.  On  its 
margin  are  small  inconspicuous  hairs. 

1  Dr.  L.  Trabut,  "  Origin  of  Cultivated  Oats,"  Jour,  of  Her.,  Vol.  5, 
No.  2,  12,  56. 


274        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

330.  The  panicle.  —  The  flowers  and  later  the  grain 
of  oats  are  borne  at  the  top  of  the  plant  on  small  branches. 
These  branches,  which  extend  in  all  directions,  are  arranged 
in  whorls  at  intervals  along  the  central  rachis  or  flower- 
stem.    There  are  from  three  to  five  of  these  whorls,  the 
branches  varying  somewhat  in  length  and  position.    The 
entire  seed-bearing  part  is  called  a  panicle.     Depending 
on  the  arrangement  of  the  branches  the  panicles  may  be 
symmetrical  or  one-sided,  closed  or  open.     It  varies  in 
length  from  eight  to  twelve  inches  and  bears  from  fifty  to 
eighty  spikelets. 

331.  The   spikelets.  —  The  oat  bears  its  flowers  in 
clusters  of  two  or  more,  each  cluster  being  subtended  by 
a  common  pair  of  glumes  (the  outer  glumes),  and  the 
whole  attached  to  the  branch  by  means  of  a  flexible  ped- 
icel of  variable  length.    Each  cluster  including  the  glumes 
and  pedicel  comprises  a  spikelet.    It  is  seldom  that  more 
than  two  flowers  in  each  spikelet  mature,  and  as  the  lower 
one  develops  into  the  larger  grain,  the  result  is  a  pair  of 
grains  of  unequal  size,  often  spoken  of  as  "twin  grains." 
Where  only  one  grain  develops  in  each  spikelet,  the  oats 
are  known  as  "single  "  oats.    Inside  of  the  large  membra- 
nous outer  glumes  are  the  flowering  glumes,  one  for  each 
flower.     Within  each  flowering  glume,   and  between  it 
and  the  flower  or  kernel  is  a  small  thin  bract  called  the 
palea.     Before  fertilization  and  the  development  of  the 
kernel  the  organs  of  reproduction  are  really  inclosed  within 
the  flowering  glume  and  palea.     They  consist  of  three 
anthers  borne  on  as  many  filaments  which  are  closely 
set  about  the  ovary,  and  which  grow  very  rapidly,  thus 
pushing  themselves  outside  the  palea.    The  ovary  bears 
two  feathery  stigmas  which  spread  out  as  the  flower 
develops. 


OATS  275 

332.  Pollination.  —  The  oat  is  ^naturally  self-pollinated, 
and  there  is  little  danger  of  crossing  between  different 
varieties,    even   when  grown   in   close   proximity.     The 
mixing  of  varieties  is  generally  the  result  of  carelessness 
in  handling  the  seed. 

333.  The  grain.  —  The  oat  grain,  except  in  hull-less 
varieties,  consists  of  the  flowering  glume,  palea,  and  ker- 
nel.    The  flowering  glume  and  palea  constitute,  what  is 
known  as  the  oat  hull.    This,  however,  is  entirely  different 
from  the  hull  of  wheat  or  corn.    In  the  case  of  wheat  the 
flowering  glume   and   palea  are  removed   in  threshing, 
while  in  oats  they  are  so  tightly  wrapped  about  the  kernel 
that  threshing  does  not  remove  them.     The  proportion 
of  hull  to  kernel  varies  considerably  in  oats  and  is  an  im- 
portant factor  in  determining  quality.    As  a  rule  the  value 
of  the  grain  decreases  as  the  proportion  of  hull  to  kernel 
increases.    Any  unfavorable  condition  during  the  time  of 
" filling"  will  usually  decrease  the  percentage  of  kernel 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  hull  develops  first. 

A  measured  bushel  of  oats  may  vary  in  weight  from 
25  to  50  pounds  although  the  usual  range  is  from  30  to  36 
pounds.  The  legal  weight  of  a  bushel  in  most  states  is 
32  pounds.  As  a  rule,  oats  produced  in  the  cotton-belt 
are  lighter  than  that  produced  further  north.  Elevator 
companies  often  resort  to  the  process  of  " clipping"  the 
grain  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the  weight  per  bushel. 
By  this  process  a  portion  of  the  hull  is  removed  from  the 
tip  of  the  grain,  special  machinery  being  used  for  this  pur- 
pose. 

334.  Composition.  —  Owing  to  the  large  proportion 
of  hull,  the  oat  grain  contains  a  larger  amount  of  fiber 
and  ash  than  any  other  cereal.    As  the  proportion  of  hull 
is  quite  variable,  depending  on  variety  and  season,  the 


276        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


composition  of  different  samples  is  very  ununiform.    The 
average  of  American  analyses  is  given  by  Hunt  as  follows : 

TABLE  28.    AVERAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  DIFFERENT  PARTS  OF  THE 
OAT  PLANT  : 


OAT 

OAT 

OAT 

OAT 

HAY 

OAT 

GRAIN 

KERNEL 

STRAW 

(cut  in 

HULL 

milk) 

Water          

11  0 

7  9 

9  2 

15  0 

7  3 

Ash 

3  0 

2  0 

5  1 

5  2 

6  7 

Protein  

11.8 

14.7 

4.0 

9.3 

3.3 

Crude  fiber  

9.5 

0.9 

37.0 

29.2 

29.7 

Nitrogen-free  ext  .  . 

59.7 

67.4 

42.4 

39.0 

52.0 

Fat  

5.0 

7.1 

2.3 

2.3 

1.0 

The  oat  kernel  is  richer  in  protein  than  that  of  any  other 
cereal.  The  straw  contains  a  higher  percentage  of  protein 
and  less  crude  fiber  than  wheat  or  rye  straw. 

The  draft  on  the  important  fertilizing  constituents  made 
by  the  oat  crop  is  shown  below: 

TABLE  29.    POUNDS  OF  NITROGEN,  PHOSPHORIC  ACID  AND  POTASH 
REMOVED  FROM  THE  SOIL  BY  A  40-BusHEL  CROP  OF  OATS  2 


NITROGEN 

PHOSPHORIC 
ACID 

POTASH 

Oat  grains,  40  bi 
Oat  straw  (1500 

i.  (1280  Ibs.) 
Ibs) 

22.53 

8  40 

8.83 
4  20 

6.14 
24  30 

Total  crop  

30.93 

13.03 

30.44 

1  Hunt,  T.  F.,  "  Cereals  in  America,"  p.  284. 

2  Duggar's  "  Southern  Field  Crops,"  p.  5,  as  calculated  from  data 
in  Hopkins'  "  Soil  Fertility  and  Permanent  Agriculture." 


OATS  277 

Nearly  three-fourths  of  the  total  nitrogen  and  two- 
thirds  of  the  phosphoric  acid  are  present  in  the  grain, 
whereas  the  straw  contains  approximately  three-fourths 
of  the  potash. 

VARIETIES   OF   OATS 

In  the  United  States,  satisfactory  results  have  been 
obtained  from  considerably  more  than  a  hundred  varieties 
of  oats.  Not  more  than  six  or  eight  of  these  are  adapted 
to  the  cotton-belt. 

335.  Classification.  —  Oat  varieties  may  be  divided 
into  several  classes,  depending  on  the  basis  of  classifica- 
tion.    As  regards  time  of  seeding  there  are  spring  and 
winter  varieties,  the  winter  oats  being  seeded  in  the  fall. 
From  the  standpoint  of  the  shape  of  the  panicle  there 
are  two  main  classes.     These  are  " spreading  oats"  in 
which  the  branches  of  the  panicle  extend  in  all  directions 
from  the  rachis,  and  "side  oats"  in  which  the  branches 
all  hang  to  one  side  of  the  rachis.    Varieties  may  be  further 
subdivided  as  regards  color  of  grain  into  white,  yellow,  red, 
gray  and  black  oats,  or  as  regards  the  shape  of  grain  into 
varieties  with  short,  plump  grains  and  .those  having  long 
slender  grains.     There  is  also  a  class  of  oat  varieties  called 
hull-less  oats  in  which  the  flowering  glume  and  palea  are 
removed  in  threshing. 

In  the  cotton-belt  the  varieties  used  are  mostly  winter 
oats  with  spreading  panicles,  and  of  red  or  gray  color. 
The  white  and  black  varieties  of  both  spreading  or  side 
oats  are  usually  found  in  northern  regions. 

336.  Varieties  grown  in  the  cotton-belt.  —  The  varie- 
ties of  oats  grown  in  the  cotton-belt  belong  to  one  of  the 
following  types:  (1)  Red  Rust-proof,  to  which  belong  the 
strains    Appier,    Red    Rust-proof,    Bancroft,    Culberson, 


278        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

Thaggard  and  Hundred  Bushel;  (2)  Burt  or  May  oats; 
(3)  Turf  or  Grazing  oats,  of  which  the  Virginia  Gray  is 
the  representative  variety;  (4)  Beardless  Red  oats,  of 
which  the  Fulghum  variety  is  an  example. 

The  type  of  oats  most  generally  grown  in  the  South 
is  the  Red  Rust-proof.  Next  in  importance  is  the  Turf 
or  Grazing  oats. 

The  relative  productiveness  of  the  four  types  of  oats 
grown  in  the  cotton-belt,  as  shown  by  tests  at  the  Alabama 
station  1  is  shown  below: 

Average  percentage  indicating 
Red  Rust-proof  group  or  type:  relative  yields  of  grain. 

Appier  (tested  9  years) \ 110 

Red  Rust-proof  (tested  10  years) 100 

Bancroft  (tested  4  years) 99 

Hundred  Bushel  (tested  3  years) 98 

Culberson  (tested  3  years) 95 

Fulghum  (tested  9  years) 73 

Burt  (tested  7  years) 70 

Turf,  Va.  Gray  or  winter  type 

oat  (tested  4  years) 48 

337.  Red  Rust-proof  oats.  —  The  typical  variety 
of  this  group  takes  the  name  of  the  type  to  which  it  be- 
longs, namely,  Red  Rust-proof.  It  is  also  called  Texas 
Red  Rust-proof,  Texas  Red,  Red,  and  Red  Texas.  The 
Red  Rust-proof  variety  and  its  various  strains  are  char- 
acterized as  follows:  (1)  Greater  resistance  to  rust  than 
other  southern  types.  (2)  Greater  length  of  the  slender 
bristles  at  the  base  of  the  larger  grain.  In  other  types 
commonly  grown  in  the  south  these  bristles  are  either 
absent  or  very  short.  (3)  Both  grains  in  each  spikelet 
usually  bearded,  the  beards  being  long  and  borne  midway 
between  the  base  and  tip  of  grain,  especially  on  the  larger 

1  Ala.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  173,  p.  132. 


OATS  279 

grains.  (4)  Straw  of  medium  height,  straight  and  stiff, 
rendering  it  less  liable  to  lodge  than  other  types.  (5) 
Grains  large,  plump  and  of  reddish  brown  color.  (6) 
Early  in  maturing.  Usually  Red  Rust-proof  oats  will 
mature  two  weeks  earlier  than  Turf  oats  sown  at  the  game 
time  in  the  fall.  If-  sowing  is  delayed  until  after  Christmas, 
Burt  oats  sown  at  the  same  time  will  usually  mature  a 
few  days  earlier  than  the  Red  oats. 

Throughout  the  entire  cotton-belt  the  Red  Rust-proof 
oats,  as  a  rule  produce  larger  yields  when  sown  in  the  early 
fall  than  when  sown  after  Christmas.  As  regards  hardi- 
ness toward  cold  this  type  is  exceeded  only  by  the  winter 
Turf  oat. 

The  Appier  is  a  very  popular  strain  of  the  Red  Rust- 
proof oats.  It  was  selected  by  J.  E.  Appier  of  Georgia, 
and  is  probably  more  extensively  grown  in  the  cotton- 
belt  than  any  other  selected  strain  of  this  type. 

The  Culberson  oat,  while  being  an  excellent  yielder 
of  grain,  is  especially  valuable  for  hay  or  soiling  as  it 
produces  a  large  amount  of  straw. 

338.  Burt  oats.  —  This  variety,  sometimes  called  the 
Ninety-Day  or  May,  is  rather  extensively  grown  in  some 
sections  of  the  cotton-belt.  The  grains  are  rather  slender 
and  of  a  pale  cream  or  brownish  color.  Usually  one  bearded 
and  one  beardless  grain  are  borne  per  spikelet  and  the 
bristles  are  either  very  short  or  absent.  The  Burt  oat  is 
easily  winter-killed  and  for  this  reason  is  usually  sown  after 
Christmas.  The  fact  that  it  is  early  maturing  together 
with  its  tendency  to  grow  tall  makes  it  popular  in  some 
sections,  particularly  when  late  sowing  must  be  practiced. 
Objectionable  features  of  this  variety  are  (1)  the  ease 
with  which  it  winter-kills ;  (2)  low  productiveness  of  grain 
as  compared  with  Red  Rust-proof  oats;  (3)  light  weight 


280 


FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


of  grain,  and  (4)  tendency  of  grain  to  shatter  when  har- 
vested. 

339.  Turf  oats. —-Only  one  variety  of  the  Winter 
Turf  type  is  commonly  grown.  It  is  commonly  known 
as  Virginia  Gray,  Turf  oats,  Grazing  oats,  or  Virginia 


FIG.  46.  —  Plats  of  winter  oats  in  November  at  the  Maryland  Agricul- 
tural Experiment  Station,  College  Park.  Note  the  broad  and  erect 
habit  of  the  Red  Rust-proof  variety  (on  the  right)  in  contrast  with 
the  narrow  leaves  and  spreading  habit  of  the  Winter  Turf  (on  the  left) . 

Winter  oats.  This  is  usually  a  beardless  variety  with 
slender  grayish  colored  grains  and  weak  slender  straw 
that  is  easily  susceptible  to  rust.  Being  the  hardiest  of 
southern  oat  varieties  the  Turf  oat  is  well  adapted  to  fall 
sowing.  The  spreading  character  of  the  plants  makes  this 
variety  better  adapted  to  winter  grazing  and  hay  produc- 
tion than  for  grain  production.  It  is  a  popular  variety 


OATS  281 

for  sowing  with  hairy  vetch  for  hay,  particularly  on  rich 
soils.  Turf  oats  ripen  from  ten  days  to  two  weeks  later 
than  Red  Rust-proof  oats  when  sown  at  the  same  date, 
in  the  fall.  Experience  has  shown  that  in  the  greater  part 
of  the  cotton-belt,  Turf  oats  are  worthy  of  consideration 
only  as  a  grazing  or  hay  crop.  In  the  extreme  northern 
part  of  the  winter-oat  belt  where  Red  Rust-proof  oats 
frequently  winter-kill,  Turf  oats  are  quite  generally  grown 
on  the  richer  soils  for  grain. 

340.  Beardless  Red  oats.  —  This  type,  of  which  the 
Fulghum  is  a  representative  variety,  is  practically  free 
from  beards  and  is  as  earjy  as  the  Burt  oats.    It  is  closely 
related  to  the  Red  Rust-proof  oats,  although  the  kernels 
are  shorter  and  less  plump.    It  is  not  extensively  grown. 

IMPROVEMENT   OF   VARIETIES 

341.  Need   of   improvement.  —  Little   attention   has 
been  given  to  the  selection  and  improvement  of  oats  in 
comparison  with  corn  and  cotton.    The  low  average  yield 
of  oats  in  the  cotton-belt  is  conclusive  evidence  that  im- 
proved varieties  and  better  methods  of  growing  and  han- 
dling the  crop  are  much  needed.    The  improvements  most 
needed  in  southern  varieties  are:  (1)  increased  productive- 
ness; (2)  increased  ratio  of  kernel  to  hull;  (3)  increased 
weight  per  bushel.     Improvements  of  secondary  value 
which  will  also  contribute  to  higher  yields  are  greater 
strength  of  straw  hi  some  varieties,  greater  resistance  to 
disease,  and  increased  earliness. 

The  methods  resorted  to  for  improving  the  oat  crop  are: 
the  introduction  of  new  seed;  mechanical  selection;  the 
maintenance  of  a  seed-plot;  the  isolation  of  elementary 
species,  and  hybridization. 

342.  Introduction  of  new  seed.  —  As  a  result  of  the 


282        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

little  attention  that  has  been  given  to  the  production  of 
new  or  improved  varieties  of  oats  in  the  United  States, 
many  of  our  best  varieties  have  been  introduced  from 
foreign  countries.  Relief  from  this  source,  however,  is 
quite  limited.  Future  progress  must  be  based  largely  on 
the  selection  and  improvement  of  the  varieties  that  we 
now  have.  The  practice  of  exchanging  seed  from  one 
locality  to  another  within  the  United  States  or  even  within 
the  cotton-belt  is  quite  common.  Experience  and  ex- 
periments have  shown  that  little  permanent  improvement 
can  be  secured  by  this  practice.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
usually  results  in  decreased  yields.  In  an  experiment 
conducted  at  Amarillo,  Texas,  by  the  office  of  Grain  In- 
vestigations, Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Washington, 
P.  C.,  "home  grown  seed  of  Burt  oats  yielded  practically 
twice  as  much  as  an  adjoining  plot  of  the  same  variety 
from  seed  which  had  been  grown  in  central  Kansas  for  two 
years,  though  both  lots  were  grown  from  the  same  original 
stock." 

343.  Mechanical     selection.  —  Running     seed     oats 
through  a  good  fanning  mill  so  adjusted  as  to  remove  the 
light-shriveled  grains  as  well  as  weed  seeds  and  dirt  is  a 
very  commendable  practice.    While  little  permanent  im- 
provement can  be  secured  by  such  treatment,  tests  have 
repeatedly  shown  increased  yields  due  to  the  removal 
of  the  poorly  developed  seeds  that  either  will  not  germinate 
or  that  produce  very  weak,  unproductive  plants. 

344.  The   seed-plot.  —  The  maintenance  of  a  seed- 
plot  is  based  on  the  principle  of  slow  and  gradual  amel- 
ioration of  the  crop  by  propagating  each  year  from  mixed 
seed  secured  from  a  number  of  select  plants  that  conform 
to  the  same  type.    The  first  year,  seed  is  selected  from  a 
sufficient  number  of  plants,  which  show  superior  qualities 


OATS  283 

under  ordinary  conditions,  to  plant  the  seed-plot.  This 
plot  should  be  large  enough  to  furnish  seed  for  the  general 
crop.  At  the  end  of  the  second  year  the  best  plants  are 
selected  from  the  seed-plot  to  plant  the  seed-plot  of  the 
next  year.  The  remainder  of  the  crop  from  the  seed-plot 
is  used  to  plant  the  general  crop.  This  method  can  be 
depended  on  to  maintain  the  excellence  of  a  variety  and 
probably  to  effect  its  slow  amelioration.  Rapid  improve- 
ment involves  a  method  which  gives  more  attention  to  the 
progeny  of  individual  plants. 

345.  The    isolation    of    elementary    species.  —  This 
method  is  based  upon  the  principle  that  our  so-called 
varieties  of  small-grain  are  neither  pure  nor  uniform  but 
are  made  up  of  numerous  elementary  units  or  types  which 
are  extremely  variable  as  regards  their  excellence.     As 
oats  are  naturally  self-pollinated  each  elementary  type 
tends  to  breed  true  from  year  to  year.    Rapid  improve- 
ment is  therefore  based  upon  the  isolation  of  the  superior 
type  from  the  mixture  and  its  subsequent  multiplication 
in  a  pure  form.    The  breeder  goes  into  the  field  and  after 
a  careful  study  of  the  individual  plants  or  types,  selects 
a  number  of  the  best  individuals.     The  seed  from  each 
individual  is  kept  separate,  and  the  next  year  is  planted 
either  in  a  row  or  "centgener"  plot  to  itself.    The  supe- 
riority of  the  individuals  selected  is  determined  by  a  care- 
ful study  of  the  uniformity  and  productiveness  of  their 
progeny.     The  seed  of  each  superior  type  that  breeds 
uniformly  true  is  kept  to  itself  and  multiplied.    This  forms 
the  basis  of  an  improved  strain.    The  most  rapid  and  per- 
manent improvement  of  oats  in  the  past  has  been  accom- 
plished by  this  method  of  individual  plant  selection. 

346.  Impfovement  by  hybridization.  —  The  improve- 
ment of  oats  by  hybridization  is  rather  difficult,  not  alone 


284        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

because  of  the  smallness  of  the  reproductive  organs  but 
because  it  also  involves  complicated  problems  of  selection 
in  order  to  isolate  and  fix  the  valuable  types  from  the  mul- 
tiplicity of  forms  that  occur  in  the  subsequent  hybrid 
generations.  For  this  reason  this  method  should  be  con- 
fined to  the  professional  breeder.  Excellent  results  have 
recently  been  secured  at  several  stations  from  a  selection 
from  the  hybrid,  Burt  X  Sixty-Day.1 

1  U.  S.  Dep't  of  Agr.,  Bui.  99. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

OATS  — CLIMATE,  SOILS,  TILLAGE  PRACTICES, 

AND  USES 

CONDITIONS  are  less  favorable  for  the  successful  produc- 
tion of  oats  in  the  cotton-belt  than  in  more  northern  sec- 
tions. This  fact  renders  it  of  paramount  importance  \that 
the  southern  oat-grower  give  special  attention  to  the  proper 
selection  of  soils  and  fertilizers  for  oats,  as  well  as  to  the 
best  time  and  manner  of  seeding. 

347.  Climate.  —  For  best  results  with  oats  the  climate 
needs  to  be  both  cool  and  moist.    They  grow  to  perfection 
under  climatic  conditions  too  cool  for  best  results  with 
wheat,  barley,  or  corn.    Throughout  the  greater  part  of 
the  cotton-belt  moisture  conditions  are  quite  favorable 
to  oat  production,  the  relatively  low  average  yield  of  this 
region  being  partially  the  result  of  the  high  mean  tem- 
perature during  the  oat-growing  season.    This  high  mean 
temperature  is  the  chief  factor  limiting  the  number  of 
varieties  of  oats  that  can  be  produced  with  success  in  the 
cotton-belt.     It  is  also  thought  that  this  same  factor  is 
primarily  responsible  for  the  relatively  poor  quality  of 
southern  oats  in  comparison  with  the  quality  of  oats  pro- 
duced in  the  North.    On  good  soils  southern  varieties  will 
grow  large  but  they  are  less  compact  and  the  grains  are 
less  plump  and  somewhat  lighter  than  northern  oats. 

348.  Soils.  —  Oats  are  more  often  sown  on  poor  soil 
than  any  other  cereal.    The  principal  reasons  for  this  are: 
(1)  the  oat  is  a  strong  feeder  and  a  fair  crop  can  be  pro- 

285 


286        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

duced  on  soils  too  poor  for  other  crops;  (2)  on  very  fertile 
soils  oats  lodge  more  than  do  the  other  small  grains.  While 
oats  are  not  best  suited  to  extremely  fertile  soils  they,  like 
other  crops,  will  not  return  the  grower  a  profit  on  exhausted 
soils.  It  should  be  remembered  also  that  the  varieties  of 
oats  most  commonly  grown  in  the  South  have  short,  stiff 
straw  and  are  not  so  likely  to  lodge  as  northern  varieties. 
Usually  any  soil  that  will  produce  satisfactory  yields  of 
corn  or  cotton  will  prove  quite  satisfactory  for  oats.  Suffi- 
cient fertility  to  produce  a  quick  growth  and  early  maturity 
is  essential.  It  is  important  that  the  soil  have  a  high  water- 
holding  capacity  as  the  water  requirements  of  oats  are 
large.  King  has  shown  that  the  water  requirement  for  the 
production  of  a  pound  of  dry  matter  in  oats  is  504  pounds 
as  compared  with  277  pounds  for  corn.  On  soils  containing 
a  high  percentage  of  clay  oats  are  more  subject  to  " spewing 
out"  or  winter-killing  than  on  sandy  soils. 

349.  Fertilizers  and  manures.  —  The  direct  applica- 
tion of  fertilizers  and  manures  to  oats  is  very  uncommon. 
The  belief  that  fertilizers  and  manures  will  cause  the  oats 
to  lodge  or  that  these  materials  will  pay  better  when  ap- 
plied to  some  other  crop  is  almost  universal.  Unquestion- 
ably the  oat  is  not  adapted  to  heavy  fertilization.  But 
experiments  have  shown  that  this  crop  will  respond  very 
profitably  to  medium  or  light  applications  of  fertilizers 
especially  when  growing  on  poor  soils.  If  oats  follow  corn 
or  some  other  crop  that  has  been  well  fertilized,  the  res- 
idues of  these  fertilizing  materials  will  usually  suffice  for 
the  oats.  If  a  good  crop  of  legumes,  such  as  cowpeas,  pre- 
cede the  oats,  all  nitrogenous  materials  in  the  oat  fertilizer 
should  be  eliminated.  However,  on  the  average  soils  of 
the  cotton-belt  the  most  universal  need  of  the  oat  crop  is 
for  nitrogen.  As  this  crop  makes  its  growth  during  the 


OATS  — CLIMATE,  SOILS,  TILLAGE,  USES     287 

cooler  months  of  the  year,  at  which  time  the  nitrifying 
processes  in  the  soil  are  relatively  inactive,  the  nitrogen 
should  be  applied  in  a  quickly  soluble  form  and  preferably 
as  a  top-dressing  about  two  months  before  harvest.  As  a 
source  of  nitrogen  for  oats  the  relative  value  of  nitrate 
of  soda  applied  as  a  top-dressing  in  the  spring,  and  cotton- 
seed meal,  cotton  seed,  nitrate  of  soda  and  manure  "incor- 
porated with  the  soil  on  the  date  of  sowing  the  seed"  has 
been  investigated  by  the  Alabama  Station.  Approximately 
equal  amounts  of  nitrogen  were  added  to  all  plots  "in  the 
presence  of  uniform  amounts  of  acid  phosphate:" 

TABLE  30.    ALABAMA  STATION  RESULTS, WITH  DIFFERENT  SOURCES 
OF  NITROGEN  FOR  OATS  l 


AVERAGE 

AMOUNT 

PER 

ACRE. 

TIME  OF 
APPLICA- 

INCREASE TO  THE  ACRE  DUE  TO 
NITROGEN  —  BUSHELS 

IN- 
CREASE 

TO  THE 

POUNDS 

TION 

;    1901 

1906 

1908 

1909 

ACRE, 
BUSHELS 

No  Nitrogen  . 

Cotton-seed 

meal  

200 

Fall 

8.0 

13.0 

6.2 

0.3 

6.7 

Cotton  seed  . 

434 

Fall 

7.3 

2.2 

4.0 

2.3 

3.9 

Nitrate  of 

soda  

100 

Spring 

19.4 

25.9 

8.8, 

19.8 

18.4 

Nitrate  of 

soda  

100 

Fall 

19.1 

24.5 

8.3 

7.8 

14.9' 

Manure  

4000 

Fall 

17.5 

21.6 

2.2 

3.2 

11.1 

On  poor  soils  from  100  to  200  pounds  of  acid  phosphate 
to  the  acre  should  be  applied  in  addition  to  the  nitrogenous 
fertilizer.  Potash  is  usually  not  needed  for  oats  except 
on  very  sandy,  poor  soils.  On  such  soils  muriate  of  potash 
at  the  rate  from  40  to  60  pounds  an  acre  should  be  included 
in  the  fertilizer  mixture.  All  commercial  fertilizers,  with 
the  exception  of  nitrate  of  soda,  are  best  applied  with  a 


1  Ala.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  173,  p.  135. 


288        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

fertilizer  attachment  to  the  grain  drill  at  the  time  of  sowing 
the  seed.  Precautions  should  be  used,  however,  to  prevent 
large  amounts  of  cotton-seed  meal  or  potash  salts  from 
coming  in  direct  contact  with  the  seed.  Otherwise  ger- 
mination might  be  injured. 

Heavy  applications  of  manure  directly  to  the  oat  crop 
are  not  advisable.  An  excellent  practice  is  to  apply  the 
manure  as  a  light  top-dressing  to  the  oats  in  late  fall  or 
early  winter. 

350.  Place  in  the  rotation.  —  Wherever  possible,  oats 
should  follow  a  cultivated  crop  in  the  rotation.  In  the 
southern  systems  of  rotation  oats  usually  follow  corn 
rather  than  cotton  as  the  corn  is  removed  from  the  land 
rather  early  in  the  fall.  An  excellent  practice  is  to  sow 
cowpeas  in  the  corn  to  be  used  as  a  seed- crop  and  the 
vines  plowed  under.  At  the  Alabama  Station  a  yield 
of  13.7  bushels  of  oats  to  the  acre  was  secured  on  land 
following  corn,  19.9  bushels  where  a  crop  of  cowpeas  had 
been  plowed  under,  and  30  bushels  to  the  acre  following 
peanuts  from  which  the  nuts  had  been  picked.  Where 
moisture  conditions  will  permit,  the  soil  should  be  plowed 
or  disked  as  soon  as  the  oats  are  harvested  and  cowpeas 
sown  for  hay,  pasture  or  green-manure.  In  most  sections 
of  the  cotton-belt  the  cowpeas  thus  sown  can  be  utilized  as 
outlined  aj^ove  in  sufficient  time  for  the  land  to  be  seeded 
to  oats  again  in  the  fall.  Following  this  system  and  plow- 
ing under  the  cowpea  vines,  the  Arkansas  Station  found 
that  the  increased  yield  of  oats  was  greater  than  where 
400  pounds  of  complete  commercial  fertilizer  to  the  acre 
were  applied.1  On  most  soils,  this  one-year  rotation  would 
require  the  application  of  mineral  fertilizers,  preferably 
to  the  cowpea  crop. 

1  Ark.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  66. 


OATS  — CLIMATE,  SOILS,  TILLAGE,  USES     289 


TILLAGE   PRACTICES 

Tillage  practices  are,  as  a  rule,  poorer  for  oats  than  for 
other  field  crops,  regardless  of  the  fact  that  oats  respond 
profitably  to  good  treatment. 

351.  Preparation  of  the  seed-bed.  —  Oats  do  better 
on  a  seed-bed  of  medium  compactness  than  on  a  very 
loose  or  very  compact  one.     Deep  plowing  is  not  as  es- 
sential as  for  corn,  cotton,  or  wheat.    Much  land  is  sown 
to  oats  in  the  cotton-belt  without  plowing.     In  some 
caees  the  oats  are  sown  broadcast  and  covered  with  some 
type  of  turn-plow.     Often  the  land  is  disked  before  the 
seed  is  sown  and  once  or  twice  after  sowing.     Covering 
the  seed  on  unplowed  land  with  a  turn-plow  is  very  ob- 
jectionable, as  much  of  the  seed  is  covered  too  deep  and 
the  seed-bed  is  often  left  in  a  loose,  cloddy  condition. 
Where  the  soil  is  naturally  compact,  as  is  generally  the 
case  in  the  cotton-belt,  plowing  the  land  before  planting 
is  advisable.    An  excellent  practice  is  to  plow  and  thor- 
oughly pulverize  the  seed-bed,  and  sow  the  seed  with  a 
grain  drill.     Where  no  grain  drill  is  available,  the  seed 
may  be  sown  broadcast  after  plowing  and  covered  with 
a  disk-harrow.    Plowing  and  harrowing  the  seed-bed  and 
afterwards  planting  by  the  deep-furrow  method  described 
later  has  been  found  to  give  excellent  results. 

352.  Time   of   seeding.  —  All   varieties   of   southern 
oats,  with  the  exception  of  Burt  or  May  oats,  are  best 
sown  in  the  early  fall  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the 
cotton-belt.      The   mistake   of   deferring   planting   until 
quite  late  in  the  fall  is  too  common  in  the  South.     As 
winter  oats  are  not  so  hardy  as  winter  wheat  or  barley, 
they  require  a  longer  period  between  sowing  and  the 
coming  of  cold  weather  so  that  the  plants  may  become 


290        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

well  rooted.  Considerable  top  growth  before  cold  weather 
is  also  desirable,  although  sufficiently  early  planting  to 
permit  the  production  of  stems  before  winter  will  result 
in  winter-killing.  Early  sown  oats  are  not  subject  to  the 
ravages  of  the  Hessian  Fly  as  is  early  sown  wheat.  In 
the  northern  section  of  the  cotton-belt,  winter  oats  should 
be  sown  from  the  15th  to  30th  of  September.  In  the  cen- 
tral section,  including  central  Texas,  most  of  Mississippi, 
Alabama,  Georgia,  and  northern  Louisiana,  the  best  time 
of  seeding  is  during  the  month  of  October  provided 
the  soil  is  not  too  dry.  Along  the  Gulf  Coast  oats  are 
usually  seeded  in  late  October  or  the  first  half  of  Novem- 
ber. In  the  cotton-belt  fall-sown  oats  almost  invariably 
yield  more  than  oats  sown  after  Christmas  for  the  following 
reasons:  (1)  the  plants  have  a  longer  time  in  which  to 
draw  food  from  the  soil  and  make  a  more  vigorous  growth; 
(2)  fall-seeding  interferes  less  with  other  work,  and  con- 
sequently a  better  prepared  seed-bed  is  furnished;  (3) 
fall-sown  oats  mature  earlier  than  when  sown  in  the  spring. 
For  this  reason  they  are  less  affected  by  rust,  and  less 
liable, to  injury  by  storms;  (4)  for  their  best  results  oats 
require  more  cool  weather  than  is  permitted  by  spring 
sowing. 

A  seven-year  test  at  the  Alabama  Station  gave  an  aver- 
age yield  of  26.8  bushels  of  oats  to  the  acre  when  they 
were  sown  in  November  as  compared  with  an  average 
yield  of  15.5  bushels  when  they  were  sown  in  February. 

353.  Methods  of  seeding.  —  There  are  three  methods 
of  seeding  oats  in  the  cotton-belt.  These  are:  (1)  broad- 
cast seeding  either  on  plowed  or  unplowed  land;  (2)  drill- 
ing with  the  ordinary  grain  drill;  and  (3)  drilling  with  the 
"  open-furrow "  drill,  or  a  one-horse  planter. 

Many  experiments  in  the  cotton-belt  have  proved  that 


OATS  — CLIMATE,  SOILS,  TILLAGE,  USES     291 

even  on  a  well -prepared  seed-bed,  drilled  oats  yield  better 
as  a  rule  than  when  sown  broadcast  and  harrowed  or 
plowed  in.  The  reasons  for  this  are:  (1)  the  drilled  seed 
are  covered  at  a  uniform  depth  and  a  more  perfect  germi- 
nation is  secured;  (2)  the  drilled  seed  being  placed  in  the 
bottom  of  shallow  furrows  are  less  subject  to  winter-kill- 
ing; and  (3)  drilled  seed  will  better  withstand  dry  weather 
than  seed  sown  broadcast.  Drilling  as  compared  with 
broadcast  sowing  requires  less  seed  to  the  acre  and  often 
induces  better  preparation  of  the  seed-bed.  In  using  the 
grain  drill  one  should  be  careful  to  see  that  none  of  the 
drills  become  clogged,  or  that  the  oats  do  not  stick  to- 
gether, resulting  in  an  uneven  distribution.  This  is 
especially  important  in  sowing  seed  of  the  Red  Rust-proof 
type. 

354.  The  open^furrow  method  of  seeding.  —  The 
method  of  seeding  oats  in  the  bottom  of  rather  deep  fur- 
rows, 16  to  24  inches  apart,  by  means  of  an  ordinary 
single-row  planter  or  a  seed-drill  especially  devised  for 
the  purpose  was  first  suggested  and  tested  by  the  Georgia 
Station.  When  a  one-horse  planter  is  used  the  furrows 
are  first  opened  with  a  large  shovel  plow.  The  recent 
invention  of  an  "  open-furrow "  drill  which  sows  several 
rows  at  a  time  will  doubtless  eliminate  the  chief  objection 
to  the  open-furrow  method  of  seeding  oats,  namely,  its 
slowness.  Where  fertilizers  are  needed  a  drill  with  a  fer- 
tilizer attachment  may  be  used,  thus  distributing  the 
fertilizer  in  the  furrows  with  the  seed. 

The  main  advantage  of  the  open-furrow  method  of 
seeding  oats  is  that  it  permits  the  roots  and  crowns  of 
the  plants  to  develop  two  or  three  inches  below  the  sur- 
face. While  the  furrows  are  partially  filled  by  rains  and 
the  alternate  freezing  and  thawing  of  the  soil,  the  plants 


292        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


are  still  far  enough  below  the  surface  to  give  ample  pro- 
tection from  cold.  In  the  early  spring  the  oats  may  be 
given  a  thorough  harrowing,  which  tends  to  level  the  land 
before  harvesting  and  serves  as  a  cultivation  for  the  crop. 
Excellent  results  from  this  method  have  been  reported 
by  both  the  Georgia  and  Alabama  Stations.  The  results 
of  a  test  at  the  Alabama  Station,  in  which  the  open-furrow 
method  of  seeding  was  compared  with  broadcast  sown, 
and  drilling,  are  given  below: 

TABLE  31.  AVERAGE  YIELDS  IN  BUSHELS  OF  OATS  SOWN  BROAD- 
CAST, IN  DEEP  FURROWS  AND  DRILLED  WITH  AN  EIGHT-INCH 
DRILL  1 


BROAD- 
CAST 

EIGHT- 
INCH 
DRILL 

DRILLED 
IN   OPEN 
FUR- 
ROWS 

DEEP 
FURROW 
FILLED 

Average  for  six  years  
Average  for  five  years  
Average  for  four  years  

32.7 
29.0 
33.6 

34.7 

34.6 

31.1 

Average  increase  over  broad- 
cast sowing  

1.1 

1.9 

2.2 

The  above  averages  are  based  only  on  the  yields 
during  those  years  in  which  both  methods  have  been 
employed. 

355.  Rate  of  seeding.  —  The  quantity  of  seed  to  sow 
varies  somewhat  with  the  method  of  sowing,  the  type  of  oats 
sown  and  the  locality.  The  quantity  of  seed  to  the  acre 
usually  recommended  for  all  varieties  of  the  Red  Rust-proof 
type  is  two  to  two  and  one-half  bushels  when  broadcast 
and  one  and  one-half  to  two  bushels  when  drilled  with 
1  Ala.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.,  173,  p.  127. 


* 
OATS —  CLIMATE,  SOILS,  TILLAGE,  USES     293 

either  the  ordinary  grain  drill  or  the  open-furrow  drill.  The 
rate  of  seeding  for  the  Winter  Turf  oats  is  often  somewhat 
less  than  for  the  Red  Rust-proof  type,  owing  to  the  hardi- 
ness of  the  former  and  its  tendency  to  stool  readily.  Late 
seeding  of  any  variety  requires  more  seed  to  the  acre  than 
early  seeding.  In  the  extreme  northern  part  of  the  cotton- 
belt  where  the  winters  are  rather  severe,  a  heavier  rate 
of  seeding  is  advisable  than  for  more  southern  sections. 
Owing  to  the  tendency  of  oats  to  stool  and  thus  occupy 
all  of  the  available  space,  the  rate  of  seeding  is  subject 
to  considerable  variation  without  materially  affecting 
the  yield. 

356.  Subsequent  care.  —  It  is  quite  common  to  give 
the  oats  no  further  treatment  from  seeding  until  harvest. 
Special  conditions  often  render  advisable  certain  practices 
in  caring  for  the  crop,  the  most  important  of  which  are 
here  given. 

(1)  Rolling  the  land  as  soon  as  possible  after  heaving 
takes  place  to  settle  the  lifted  plants  into  closer  contact 
with  the  soil.    Heaving  is  worse  on  clay  soils  and  injury 
will  result  if  such  soils  are  rolled  when  wet. 

(2)  Harrowing  in  the  early  spring  to  keep  weeds  in  check 
and  to  prevent  the  excessive  loss  of  moisture  by  breaking 
the  surface  crust.    It  is  important  that  land  seeded  by  the 
open-furrow  method  be  harrowed  in  the  spring  to  partially 
fill  the  furrows  and  level  down  the  ridges  between  the  fur- 
rows. 

(3)  Top-dressing  the  oats  in  the  fall  with  barnyard 
manure  or  in  the  spring  with  75  to  100  pounds  of  nitrate 
of  soda  to  the  acre.. 

(4)  Oats  sown  very  early  in  the  fall  are  sometimes  pas- 
tured during  the  winter  to  prevent  the  formation  of  stems 
before  all  danger  of  freezing  weather  is  past.    Oats  should 


294        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

not  be  pastured  when  the  land  is  wet,  nor  late  enough  to 
prevent  abundant  stooling  or  the  production  of  stems  in 
the  spring. 

USES   OF  OATS 

357.  Grain  as  food.  —  The  grain  of  oats  is  used  pri- 
marily as  a  feed  for  horses,  first  because  of  its  high  value 
as  a  horse  food,  and,  second,  because  the  market  price 
of  oats  in  the  cotton-belt  is  so  high  as  to  prohibit  its  being 
fed  with  profit  to  other  classes  of  live-stock.    Even  when 
oats  are  fed  to  horses,  the  practice  of  substituting  corn 
or  some  cheaper  food  for  a  part  of  the  oat  ration  is  rather 
common.    Oats  do  not  make  a  good  ration  for  fattening 
cattle  and  its  high  content  of  crude  fiber  renders  it  inferior 
as  a  food  for  hogs.    When  the  price  will  justify  its  use  the 
grain  of  oats  makes  a  good  feed  for  dairy  cows,  sheep 
and  poultry. 

358.  Oat  straw.  —  For  stock  not  at  hard  work,  oat 
straw  makes  a  valuable  roughage.     Its  feeding  value  is 
greater  than  the  straw  of  wheat,  rye,  or  barley  and  almost 
equals  that  of  corn  stover.     Oat  straw  is  an  excellent 
absorbent  and  being  richer  in  fertilizing  elements  than  the 
straw  of  the  other  small-grains,  it  makes   an  excellent 
litter  for  use  in  stables. 

359.  Oat  hay.  —  If  cut  in  the  early  dough  stage  oats 
make  an  excellent  hay.    On  good  land,  from  two  to  three 
tons  to  the  acre  can  be  produced.     It  is  cured  without 
difficulty  and  is  eaten  greedily  by  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep. 
In  the  South,  winter  vetch  is  often  grown  with  the  oats 
for  hay. 

360.  Oats  for  pasture  and  soiling.  —  Excellent  winter 
pasture  for  all  kinds  of  stock  may  be  furnished  by  oats. 
They  should  not  be  pastured  early  in  the  fall  nor  too  closely 


OATS  — CLIMATE,  SOILS,  TILLAGE,  USES     295 

if  a  crop  of  grain  is  desired.  Sowing  vetch  with  the  oats 
increases  the  value  of  the  pasture. 

As  a  soiling-crop,  oats  will  furnish  a  large  amount  of 
green  feed,  although  they  come  into  use  a  little  later  than 
rye.  Cutting  begins  as  soon  as  the  heads  begin  to  show 
and  continues  until  the  crop  is  almost  mature. 


CHAPTER  XXV 

OATS  — HARVESTING,   MARKETING,   INSECT 
ENEMIES  AND  DISEASES 

IN  the  cotton-belt,  oats  are  usually  cut  with  a  grain 
binder.  In  special  cases,  as  when  the  straw  is  badly  lodged 
or  is  very  short  owing  to  poor  soil  or  dry  weather,  or  when 
the  crop  is  cut  for  hay  rather  than  grain,  the  mower  may 
be  used.  Small,  irregularly  shaped  areas  are  best  har- 
vested with  a  mower  or  with  a  cradle.  In  the  grain- 
producing  states  of  the  semi-arid  West  oats  are  often 
harvested  with  a  header  or  sometimes  with  a  combined 
harvester  and  thrasher. 

361.  Time  of  cutting.  —  To  produce  the  best  quality 
of  grain,  oats  should  be  cut  when  the  grain  has  passed 
from  the  "milk"  into  the  hard  "dough"  stage.    As  most 
varieties  of  southern  oats  do  not  shatter  badly,  cutting  is 
often  deferred  until  the  grain  has  just  past  the  hard  dough 
stage,  at  which  time  the  heads  have  turned  yellow.     If 
oats  are  cut  before  the  hard  dough  stage,  the  grain  will 
subsequently  shrivel  and  be  of  light  weight.    Even  when 
cut  for  hay,  the  grain  should  be  permitted  to  develop  as 
much  as  possible  without  allowing  the  straw  to  become 
tough  and  hard. 

362.  Shocking.  —  If  the  oats  are  fairly  mature  when 
harvested  and  do  not  contain  a  large  amount  of  green 
weeds,   the  bundles  should  be  placed  in  round  shocks 
of  ten  or  twelve  bundles  each.     Each  shock  should  be 
covered  with  two  bundles  as  "caps,"  or  with  covers  made 

296 


OATS  — HARVESTING,  MARKETING,  ENEMIES    297 

out  of  canvas.  Carefully  built  shocks  which  expose  as 
little  grain  to  the  weather  as  possible  produce  the  best 
quality  of  grain.  Oats  that  are  green  when  cut  or  that 
contain  large  quantities  of  weeds  should  be  placed  in  long 
shocks,  which  may  or  may  not  be  capped.  In  sections 
subject  to  frequent  rains  at  harvest  time  capping  is  advisa- 
ble. Oats  should  never  be  shocked  while  wet  from  dew  or 
rain. 

Oats  that  have  been  cut  with  the  mower  should  lie  in 
the  swath  or  windrow  until  they  are  partially  cured;  then 
they  should  be  placed  in  carefully  built  cocks.  In  sections 
subject  to  much  rain,  canvas  covers  should  be  provided 
for  these  cocks. 

363.  Stacking.  —  In  the  humid  part  of  the  cotton-belt 
it  is  usually  necessary  to  stack  oats  intended  for  grain, 
particularly  if  the  thrasher  cannot  be  put  into  the  field 
as  soon  as  the  grain  is  fit  to  thrash.  Stacking  should  be 
done  as  soon  as  the  oats  have  completely  cured  out  in  the 
shock.  Leaving  them  for  a  considerable  time  in  the  shock 
where  they  are  unnecessarily  exposed  to  unfavorable 
weather  is  responsible  for  much  bleached,  sprouted,  or 
bin-damaged  grain.  The  stack  should  be  well  built  on  a 
base  made  of  poles  or  rails  to  prevent  the  grain  from  com- 
ing in  contact  with  the  earth.  The  bundles  should  be  so 
placed  that  only  the  butts  are  exposed  and  with  slope 
enough  to  prevent  water  from  running  back  the  stems  into 
the  stack.  The  stack  should  be  well  capped  to  shed  water. 

In  dry  sections  and  where  thrashing  machines  are  readily 
available,  oats  are  often  thrashed  from  the  shock  without 
stacking.  Where  this  can  be  done  without  damaging  the 
grain  it  is  more  economical  than  stacking. 
*  364.  Thrashing  and  storing.  —  For  best  results,  the 
grain  must  be  thoroughly  dry  when  thrashed.  Care  must 


298        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

be  exercised  to  see  that  the  concaves  of  the  machine  are 
so  adjusted  as  to  remove  all  of  the  grain  from  the  straw 
without  hulling  the  grain.  The  straw  is  usually  stacked 
or  hauled  to  the  barn. 

The  grain  should  be  stored  in  well-constructed  bins  set 
sufficiently  high  off  the  ground  that  the  grain  will  not 
absorb  moisture.  The  bins  should  be  well  cleaned  before 
filling  as  grain  weevils  or  other  insects  often  get  into  the 
grain  from  unc leaned  bins. 

MARKETING 

The  greater  part  of  the  oats  produced  in  the  cotton- 
belt  are  fed  on  the  farm.  In  some  cases  that  portion  of 
the  crop  that  is  marketed  is  first  run  through  a  fanning 
mill  to  remove  dirt  and  weed  seeds  as  well  as  the  light, 
chaffy  grains,  with  the  idea  of  raising  the  grade.  Often 
the  markets  do  not  pay  sufficiently  for  cleaned  seed  to 
justify  the  farmer  for  his  trouble. 

365.  Bleached  oats.  —  The  large  elevator  companies 
sometimes  resort  to  the  practice  of  bleaching  oats  of 
inferior  quality  with  sulfur  fumes  or  other  chemicals  for 
the  purpose  of  making  them  resemble  a  better  quality. 
The  profit  from  this  practice  is  derived  (1)  by  securing 
low  grades  of  oats  and  greatly  increasing  their  selling  price 
by  changing  their  appearance  and  (2)  by  increasing  the 
original  weight  by  means  of  the  water  absorbed  during 
the  bleaching  process.     Investigations  have  shown  that- 
bleaching  impairs  the  vitality  of  oats  but  that  their  feed- 
ing value  is  not  greatly  reduced.1    Bleached  oats  should 
not  be  used  for  seed. 

366.  Market  grades  of  oats.  —  On  the  large  markets 
oats  are  graded  when  bought.    These  market  grades  differ* 

1  U.  S.  Dep't  of  Agr.  Bur.  of  Plant  Ind.,  Cir.  74, 


OATS  — HARVESTING,  MARKETING,  ENEMIES    299 

somewhat  with  different  markets.  The  grades  that  were 
adopted  by  the  Grain  Dealers'  National  Association  in 
1909  are  given  below: 

WHITE  OATS 

"No.  1  white  oats  shall  be  white,  dry,  sweet,  sound,  bright,  clean, 
free  from  other  grain,  and  weigh  not  less  than  32  pounds  to  the 
measured  bushel. 

"No.  2  white  oats  shall  be  95  per  cent  white,  dry,  sweet,  shall  con- 
tain not  more  than  1  per  cent  of  dirt  and  1  per  cent  of  other  grain, 
and  weigh  not  less  than  29  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

"Standard  white  oats  shall  be  92  per  cent  white,  dry,  sweet,  shall 
not  contain  more  than  2  per  cent  of  dirt  and  2  per  cent  of  other  grain, 
and  weigh  not  less  than  28  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

"No.  3  white  oats  shall  be  sweet,  90  per  cent  white,  shall  not  con- 
tain more  than  3  per  cent  of  dirt  and  5  per  cent  of  other  grain,  and 
weigh  not  less  than  24  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

"No.  4  white  oats  shall  be  90  per  cent  white,  may  be  damp,  dam- 
aged, musty  or  very  dirty. 

"NOTICE.  —  Yellow  oats  shall  not  be  graded  better  than /No.  3 
white  oats. 

MIXED  OATS 

"No.  1  mixed  oats  shall  be  oats  of  various  colors,  dry,  sweet,  sound, 
bright,  clean,  free  from  other  grain,  and  weigh  not  less  than  32  pounds 
to  the  measured  bushel. 

"No.  2  mixed  oats  shall  be  oats  of  various  colors,  dry,  sweet,  shall 
not  contain  more  than  2  per  cent  of  dirt  and  2  per  cent  of  other  grain, 
and  weigh  not  less  than  28  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

"No.  3  mixed  oats  shall  be  sweet  oats  of  various  colors,  shall  not 
contain  more  than  3  per  cent  of  dirt  and  5  per  cent  of  other  grain, 
and  weigh  not  less  than  24  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

"No.  4  mixed  oats  shall  be  oats  of  various  coiors,  damp,  damaged, 
musty,  or  very  dirty. 

RED  OR  RUST-PROOF  OATS 

"No.  1  red  oats,  or  rust-proof,  shall  be  pure  red,  sound,  bright, 
sweet,  clean,  and  free  from  other  grain,  and  weigh  not  less  than  32 
pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 


300        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

"No.  2  red  oats,  or  rust-proof,  shall  be  seven-eighths  red,  sweet, 
dry,  and  shall  not  contain  more  than  2  per  cent  dirt  or  foreign  matter, 
and  weigh  30  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

"No.  3  red  oats,  or  rust-proof,  shall  be  sweet,  seven-eighths  red, 
shall  not  contain  more  than  5  per  cent  dirt  or  foreign  matter,  and 
weigh  not  less  than  24  pounds  to  the  measured,  bushel. 

"No.  4  red  oats,  or  rust-proof,  shall  be  seven-eighths  red,  may  be 
damp,  musty,  or  very  dirty. 

WHITE  CLIPPED  OATS 

"No.  1  white  clipped  oats  shall  be  white,  clean,  dry,  sweet,  sound, 
bright,  free  from  other  grain,  and  weigh  not  less  than  35  pounds  to 
the  measured  bushel. 

"No.  2  white  clipped  oats  shall  be  95  per  cent  white,  dry,  sweet, 
shall  not  contain  more  than  2  per  cent  of  dirt  or  foreign  matter,  and 
weigh  not  less  than  32  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

"No.  3  white  clipped  oats  shall  be  sweet,  90  per  cent  white,  shall 
not  contain  more  than  5  per  cent  of  dirt  or  foreign  matter,  and  weigh 
not  less  than  30  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

"No.  4  white  clipped  oats  shall  be  90  per  cent  white,  damp,  dam- 
aged, musty,  or  dirty,  and  weigh  not  less  than  30  pounds  to  the 
measured  bushel. 

MIXED  CLIPPED  OATS 

"No.  1  mixed  clipped  oats  shall  be  oats  of  various  colors,  dry, 
sweet,  sound,  bright,  clean,  free  from  other  gram,  and  weigh  not  less 
than  35  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

"No.  2  mixed  clipped  oats  shall  be  oats  of  various  colors,  dry, 
sweet,  shall  not  contain  more  than  2  per  cent  of  dirt  or  foreign  matter, 
and  weigh  not  less  than  32  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

"No.  3  mixed  clipped  oats  shall  be  sweet  oats  of  various  colors, 
shall  not  contain  more  than  5  per  cent  of  dirt  or  foreign  matter,  and 
weigh  not  less  than  30  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

"No.  4  mixed  clipped  oats  shall  be  oats  of  various  colors,  damp, 
damaged,  musty,  or  dirty,  and  weigh  not  less  than  30  pounds  to  the 
measured  bushel. 

"NOTE.  —  Inspectors  are  authorized  when  requested  by  shippers 
to  give  weight  per  bushel  instead  of  grade  on  clipped  white  oats  and 
clipped  mixed  oats  from  private  elevators. 


OATS —  HARVESTING,  MARKETING,  ENEMIES    301 

PURIFIED  OATS 

"All  oats  that  have  been  chemically  treated  or  purified  shall  be 
classed  as  purified  oats,  and  inspectors  shall  give  the  test  weight  on 
each  car  or  parcel  that  may  be  so  inspected." 

INSECT  ENEMIES 

367.  The  oat  plant  is  generally  exceptionally  free  from 
insect  injury.    In  occasional  seasons,  chinch-bugs,  grass- 
hoppers, or  green-bugs  (Toxoptera  graminum)  do  consider- 
able damage.    Methods  of  exterminating  chinch-bugs  are 
outlined  in  the  chapter  on  insect  enemies  of  corn. 

Green-bugs  are  small  green  colored  lice  that  suck  the 
juices  from  the  young  plants.  They  are  most  serious  in 
the  western  and  southwestern  sections  of  the  country. 
Green-bugs  are  usually  kept  in  check  by  their  natural 
enemies  among  which  is  a  species  of  lady  bug. 

FUNGOUS  DISEASES 

The  two  diseases  of  paramount  importance  affecting 
oats  are  rust  and  smut. 

368.  Oat  rust.  —  There  are  two  distinct  kinds  of  oat 
rust.    One  of  these  (Puccinia  coronata)  occurs  chiefly  on 
the  leaves  and  is  known  as  the  " crown"  rust  owing  to  the 
fact  that  the  spores  at  their  upper  parts  have  the  form  of 
a  crown.     The  other  kind  of  rust  (P.  graminis  avence) 
occurs  on  the  stems  and  is  known  as  " black-stem"  rust. 
Each  of  these  rusts  has  two  stages,  the  red-rust  stage, 
appearing  first,  followed  by  the  black-rust  stage.     For 
this  reason  they  are  often  confused  by  farmers.     Both 
"crown  "-and  "black-stem"  rust  have  been  found  to  be 
coextensive  with  the  oat  crop,  usually  occurring  together 
and  being  much  more  prevalent  in  humid  than  in  arid 
sections.    The  black-stem  rust  is  of  extreme  importance  in 


302        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-  BELT 

the  cotton-belt.  The  "  crown  "  rust  is  not  a  serious  disease. 
It  usually  appears  a  little  earlier  than  the  stem-rust  and 
little  injury  is  noticed  until  the  latter  appears. 

There  is  no  known  treatment  for  rust.  Some  varieties 
are  more  resistant  to  attacks  of  rust  than  others  and  the 
only  relief  lies  in  the  growing  of  these  resistant  sorts,  chief 
of  which  is  the  Red  Rust-proof  type.  These  so-called 
rust-proof  oats  are  not  entirely  rust-proof  as  there  is  nearly 
always  a  considerable  amount  of  rust  on  the  plants.  In 
almost  any  variety  there  are  some  plants  more  resistant 
to  rust  than  others.  As  this  rust  resistance  is  heritable 
to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  the  possibility  of  breeding  up 
rust-resistant  strains  is  great.  To  what  character  of  the 
plant  rust-resistance  is  due  has  not  been  definitely  estab- 
lished, but  most  authorities  agree  that  the  cause  is  physi- 
ological rather  than  morphological. 

369.  Oat  smut.  —  This  disease  occurs  in  two  closely 
related  forms  both  of  which  are  noticeable  exclusively 
in  connection  with  the  flowering  or  seed-producing  parts 
of  the  plant.  The  most  common  and  destructive  form 
(Ustilago  avence)  is  known  as  loose  smut  in  that  it  reduces 
the  entire  flower-cluster  or  inflorescence  into  a  black,  dusty 
mass  of  spores  (Fig.  47).  In  the  other  form  (Ustilago 
Icevis)  known  as  closed  smut,  the  disease  destroys  only 
the  kernels,  changing  them  into  black  masses  of  spores,  the 
glumes  not  being  attacked.  This  form,  therefore,  remains 
inclosed  or  hidden.  In  each  of  these  forms  infection  occurs 
only  during  the  young  seedling  stage.  The  mycelia  subse- 
quently grow  throughout  the  entire  tissues  of  the  develop- 
ing plant,  finally  maturing  the  spores  (or  seed)  in  the 
flowering  portion.  As  these  diseases  are  propagated  from 
year  to  year  by  the  spores  that  are  carried  over  on  the 
seed,  they  are  easily  controlled  by  various  seed  treatments, 


OATS  —  HARVESTING,  MARKETING,  ENEMIES    303 


the  most  common  of  which  are  the  formalin  treatment 
and  the  hot-water  treatment. 

The  formalin  treatment  consists  in  dipping  the  seed  for 
ten  minutes  in  a 
solution  containing 
one  pint  of  formalin 
to  30  gallons  of 
water.  The  seed 
may  be  put  in 
loosely  woven  sacks 
and  the  entire  mass 
immersed  in  the 
solution.  The  seed 
is  then  dried  suf- 
ficiently to  run 
through  the  drills, 
or  if  immediate  sow- 
ing is  impossible, 
the  seed  should  be 
spread  and  thor- 
oughly dried  to  pre- 
vent germination. 
If  the  grain  is  sown 
while  in  a  swollen 
condition,  the  quan- 
tity to  the  acre 
should  be  increased 
accordingly. 

370.  The   hoi- 
water    treatment 


FIG.  47.  —  Smut  of  oats,  showing  a  smutted 
head  and  for  comparison  a  sound  oat  head. 


consists  in  immersing  the  seed  for  ten  minutes  in  water  kept 
at  a  temperature  of  from  132°  to  133°  F.  In  order  that  the 
temperature  of  the  hot  water  may  not  be  greatly  reduced 


304        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

by  using  cold  seed,  the  seed  should  be  put  into  a  basket  or 
loosely  woven  sack  and  previously  dipped  into  water  at  a 
temperature  of  110°  to  120°  F.  The  temperature  of  the 
water  is  regulated  -by  adding  cold  or  hot  water  as  the  case 
may  require.  A  good  thermometer  is  absolutely  necessary 
for  all  hot-water  treatments,  otherwise  the  vitality  of  the 
seed  may  be  destroyed  on  the  one  hand,  or  the  treatment 
may  be  ineffective  on  the  other. 

Copper  sulfate  solution,  often  employed  for  preventing 
smuts  of  certain  cereals,  should  never  be  used  for  oats 
,as  it  injures  the  seed. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 
..      WHEAT  (Triticum  sativum) 

WHEAT  is  a  cereal  grass,  widely  distributed  over  the 
civilized  world  and  of  vast  economic  importance.  It  is 
grown  primarily  for  its  grain,  the  flour  of  which  is  made 
into  various  forms  of  human  food.  The  by-products  of 
wheat  are  used  as  feed  for  live-stock. 

371.  Antiquity   of  wheat.  —  The   great   antiquity   of 
wheat  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  it  has  been  found  in  the 
prehistoric  habitations  of  man.    As  far  back  as  the  Stone 
Age  one  or  two  small-grained  sorts  of  wheat  were  used  by 
the  earliest  Lake  Dwellers  of  western  Switzerland.    The 
Chinese  grew  the  crop  3000  years  B.  C.    The  most  ancient 
languages  mention  wheat,  although  under  different  names. 
It  is  generally  agreed  that  the  cultivation  of  wheat  ante- 
dates the  written  history  of  man. 

372.  Nativity.  —  The  original   habitat  of  wheat  has 
never  been  determined  with  certainty.     The  most  gen- 
erally accepted  belief  is  that  wheat  once  grew  wild  in  the 
Euphrates  and  Tigris  valleys.    That  wheat  has  been  found 
growing  wild  in  western  Asia  has  been  claimed  by  some  but 
without  conclusive  evidence. 

373.  Biological  origin.  —  The  biological  orgin  of  wheat, 
like  its  nativity,  is  somewhat  obscure.    Many  believe  that 
our  cultivated  wheat  traces  back  to  the  wild  annual  grasses 
belonging  to  the  genus  jEgilops  occurring  abundantly  in 
southern  Europe.1   The  Minnesota  Station  2  points  out  the 

1  Dondlinger,  P.  T.,  "  The  Book  of  Wheat,"  p.  3. 

2  Minn.  Agr.  Exp.  Station,  Bui.  62,  "  p.  81." 

305 


306        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

following  different  stages  in  the  evolution  of  wheat:  (1) 
Mgilops  ovata,  a  small  annual  grass  of  southern  Europe, 
having  but  one  grain  in  each  head;  (2)  the  improved  and 
better  developed  form  of  this  same  species;  (3)  Triticum 
spelta,  the  cultivated  spelt  of  Europe;  (4)  Triticum  poloni- 
cum,  Polish  wheat;  (5)  Triticum  sativum,  common  wheat. 

374.  Botanical    classification.  —  Following    is    shown 
the  botanical  classification  of  common  wheat:  Order  — 
Gramineae;  tribe  —  Hordeae;  genus  —  Triticum;  species  — 
sativum;  subspecies  —  vulgare. 

Each  member  of  the  tribe  (Hordese)  to  which  wheat,  rye, 
and  barley  belong  produces  its  inflorescence  in  the  form  of 
a  spike,  rather  than  in  a  panicle  as  do  the  members  of  the 
tribe  (A venae)  to  which  oats  belong.  Other  cultivated 
grasses  belonging  to  the  same  tribe  as  wheat  are  perennial 
rye-grass  (Lolium  perenne),  and  Italian  rye-grass  (Lolium 
italicum).  Some  troublesome  weeds  belonging  to  this 
tribe  are  darnel  (Lolium  temukntum) ,  and  couch-grass 
(Agropyron  repens). 

STRUCTURE  AND   COMPOSITION   OF  WHEAT 

375.  Roots.  —  In  germinating,  the  wheat  grain  throws 
out  a  whorl  of  3  to  8  temporary  roots.    The  first  of  these 
to  appear  is  called  the  radicle.     Immediately  following 
the  appearance  of  the  temporary  roots  the  stalk  begins 
to  develop.    At  each  underground  joint  a  whorl  of  per- 
manent roots  is  thrown  out.    The  distance  between  the 
temporary  roots  and  the  joints  at  which  the  permanent 
roots  are  borne  will  be  governed  primarily  by  the  depth 
of  planting.     The  permanent  roots  usually  occur  about 
one  inch  below  the  surface  of  the  soil,  irrespective  of 
the  depth  of  planting.    No  tap-root  is  produced.     The 
roots  are  quite  fibrous  and  tend  to  curve  outward  for  a 


WHEAT 


307 


short  distance  from  the  plant  and  then  descend  almost 
vertically,  many  of  them  having  been  known  to  grow  to  a 
depth  of  four  or  five  feet. 

376.  Culms.  —  The  culms  of  wheat  vary  in  height 
from  three  to  five  feet.    They  are  usually  hollow  with  solid 
joints,  but  in  a  few  varieties  they  are  partially  or  entirely 
filled  with  pith.    During  the  early  growth  of 

the  culm,  the  joints  are  very  close  together 
but  as  it  elongates  the  spaces  between  the 
joints  increase  rapidly  until  the  plant  has 
reached  its  full  height.  The  length  of  the 
culms  vary  with  type,  variety,  soil,  fertility, 
and  seasonal  conditions.  The  tendency  to 
lodge  is  governed  primarily  by  the  length  of 
the  stems  and  secondarily  by  their  stiffness 
or  strength.  There  is  not  necessarily  any 
direct  relation  between  the  yield  of  grain 
and  the  length  of  culms.  The  latter  char- 
acter, however,  influences  the  ease  of  har- 
vesting. 

377.  Tillering   (Fig.  48).  — Wheat,  like 
other  cereals,  throws  out  branches  after  the 
plumule  has  appeared  above  ground.   Within 
the  axil  of  each  leaf  on  the  culm  as  well  as 
at  each  underground  node  a  bud  is  formed. 
Ordinarily  only  the  buds  that  are  covered  with  soil  develop 
into  branches,  the  others  remaining  dormant.    As  each 
branch  may  produce  a  limited  number  of  branches,  and  as 
these  branches  may  in  turn,  produce  still  other  branches, 
each  grain  may  under  favorable  conditions,  produce  a  rela- 
tively large  number  of  culms.    In  exceptional  cases  one 
grain  of  wheat  has  been  known  to  produce  as  many  as  fifty 
spikes.    By  this  characteristic  of  tillering,  wheat  and  other 


FIG.  48. 
Diagrammat- 
ic section 
through  the 
stem  of  wheat 
about  25  days 
after  planting 
(enlarged). 
The  first  bud 
designed  to 
form  a  tiller 
is  just  start- 
ing. 


308        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


-2. 


small  grains  possess  considerable  power  of  adapting  them- 
selves to  their  environment.  As  a  rule,  the  more  favorable 
the  conditions  are  for  growth  and  the  thinner  the  seeding  is, 
the  greater  is  the  tendency  to  tiller.  However,  very  thin 
seeding  with  the  idea  of  inducing 
tillering  is  not  advisable,  as  it  will 
usually  result  in  decreased  yield. 

378.  Leaves. —  The  wheat  leaf 
(Fig.  49)  consists  of  four  principal 
parts:  (1)  the  blade,  or  that  part  of 
the  leaf  which  hangs  free  from  the 
stem;  (2)  the  sheath,  constituting 
that  part  which  envelops  the  stem 
tightly;  (3)  the  ligule,  a  thin  mem- 
brane growing  at  the  juncture  of  the 
blade  and  sheath  and  also  clasping 
the  culm;  (4)  the  leaf-auricle,  being 
a  thin  outgrowth  from  the  base  of 
the  blade.  In  the  case  of  wheat, 
small  hairs  are  produced  on  the  edges 
of  the  leaf-auricles  whereas  the  auri- 
cles of  barley  and  rye  are  hairless. 
Oats  usually  produce  no  auricles.  The  leaf-blade  of  wheat 
is  usually  narrower  than  that  of  either  barley  or  oats. 

379.  The  spike  (Fig.  50).  —  The  inflorescence  of  wheat 
is  arranged  in  a  long,  narrow,  compact  cluster  at  the  sum- 
mit of  the  stem  and  is  called  the  "  spike "  or  " head."  That 
part  of  the  stem  running  through  the  spike,  to  which  the 
flower-stems  are  attached,  is  called  the  "rachis."  The 
short  joints  of  the  rachis  are  put  together  in  such  a  way  as 
to  give  it  a  zigzag  appearance.  The  spikelets  are  produced 
'at  these  joints  on  alternate  sides  of  the  rachis.  The  length 
of  the  wheat  spike  varies  from  2J/2  to  4%  inches,  the  av- 


FIG.  49.  —  A  wheat  leaf, 
showing  1,  blade;  2, 
sheath;  3,  ligule;  and 
4,  auricle. 


WHEAT  309 

erage  length  being  about  3}/2  inches.  The  spike  is  also 
variable  as  regards  its  form  and  compactness.  It  may  be 
tapering  from  the  center  toward  both  tip  and  base  or  from 
the  center  toward  the  apex  only.  Again  the  spike  may  be 
of  uniform  thickness  throughout  or,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  club  varieties,  decidedly  clubbed  at 
the  apex.  The  number  of  spikelets  to  a  spike 
is  governed  by  variety,  soil,  climate,  or  culture, 
the  usual  variation  being  from  10  to  20,  con- 
taining a  total  of  20  to  50  grains. 

380.  The  spikelets.  —  The  spikelets  may 
be  termed  secondary  spikes.  Each  spikelet  is 
joined  to  the  rachis  by  a  small  branch  which 
extends  through  the  center  of  the  spikelet  and 
is  known  as  the  "rachilla."  "Inserted  on  the 
rachilla  are  several  concave  scales  which  are 
called  the  glumes.  The  two  lowest  and  outer- 
most of  these  contain  no  flowers  or  kernels  FlG  50  _ 
and  are  designated  as  the  'flowerless  glumes.'  Front  and 
Above  these,  arranged  alternately,  are  borne  of  spikelet 
the  flowers,  rarely  less  than  two,  or  more  than 


five.    Each  flower  and,   as  it  matures,   each  a  c 

grain,  is  subtended  by  a  single  glume,  known  ment  to 
as  the  'flowering  glume.'  Each  flowering  glume 
has  a  longitudinal  nerve  which  at  the  summit  extends 
(in  the  case  of  bearded  varieties)  into  a  prominent 
'awn'  or  'beard.'  On  the  inner  or  creased  side  of  the 
grain  or  berry,  filling  it  very,  closely,  and  more  or  less 
hidden  from  view  by  the  flowering  glume,  is  borne  the 
'  palea  '  or  palet,  a  thin  scale  with  two  nerves.  The  flower- 
less  and  flowering  glumes  and  the  palets  are  spoken  of 
collectively  as  the  'chaff.'"  The  wheat  flower  consists  of 
the  flowering  glume,  the  palea  and  the  reproductive  organs. 


310        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


381.  Fertilization.  —  The  wheat  flower  possesses  two 
erect  plume-like  stigmas  which  surmount  the  ovulary. 
'There  are  three  stamens  each  bearing  an  anther.  As  the 
flower  develops,  the  filaments  bearing  the  anthers  elongate 
rapidly,  pushing  the  anthers  upward  so  that  they  suddenly 
overturn  allowing  the  pollen  to  fall  upon  the  stigmas. 
These  expansions  and  processes  take  place  within  the 
closed  flower,  and  thus  the  wheat  is  self-fertilized.  After 


4-45    AM 


4-43 


4-55 


5-08   A-M. 


5-15 


10 


FIG.  51.  —  Illustrating  the  opening  and  closing  of  the  wheat  flower: 
1  to  5,  opening  of  the  flower;  6  to  8,  closing  of  the  flower.  In  9,  the 
flower  is. shown  as  closed,  only  the  anther  having  escaped;  in  10  none 
of  the  anthers  succeeded  in  passing  out  of  the  enveloping  chaff. 

fertilization  takes  place  the  anthers  are  pushed  outside 
of  the  glumes  and  at  this  time  the  wheat  is  generally 
recognized  as  being  "in  bloom."  Rainy  weather  at  the 
time  that  fertilization  is  taking  place  is  said  to  cause  im- 
perfect fertilization,  as  the  inside  of  the  flower  is  likely  to 
retain  some  of  the  water. 

382.  The  grain  (Fig.  53).  —  The  wheat  grain  is  a  uni- 
locular  indehiscent  caryopsis  of  oblong  shape  with  one  end 
slightly  pointed,  and  with  a  longitudinal  furrow  on  one  side, 
causing  a  deep  infolding  of  the  pericarp.  At  the  base  of  the 
grain  opposite  the  furrow  is  the  small  embryo  or  germ. 


WHEAT 


311 


-e. 


FIG.  52.  —  The  reproductive  organs  of  wheat:  (1)  Spikelet,  natural  size, 
with  a  few  joints  of  the  rachis;  /  and  g  are  flowerless  glumes;  k,  florets 
bearing  seeds;  r,  rudimentary  florets.  (2)  Longitudinal  diagram  of 
flower  just  before  flowering;  anthers  marked  a,  ovary,  o;  stigma,  s; 
filament,  /.  (3)  Diagram  of  flower  just  after  flowering,  showing  how 
anthers  are  held  within  the  envelope.  (4)  Ovary  and  stigma  just  prior 
to  flowering.  (5)  Ovary  and  stigma  at  the  time  of  flowering.  (6)  Ovary 
and  stigma  shortly  after  flowering.  (7),  (S),  and  (9)  the  mature  seed; 
a,  the  ventral  side;  b,  the  dorsal  side;  c,  the^erm  or  chit;  s,  the  stem 
end  of  the  germ ;  r,  the  root  end;  e,  outer  layers  of  bran;  d,  the  incurved 
surface  of  bran  on  the  ventral  side  of  the  seed.  The  white  portions 
of  (8)  and  (9)  are  the  floury  interior  consisting  of  cells  containing  the 
gluten  and  starch  from  which  white  flour  is  made. 


312        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


The  greater  portion  of  the  wheat  grain  consists  of  endo- 
sperm or  starch  cells  which  form  the  chief  constituent  of 
wheat  flour.  The  ratio  of  embryo  to  endosperm  is  about 
as  one  to  thirteen.  The  embryo  is 
composed  essentially  of  two  parts,  viz., 
the  miniature  plant  known  as  the  veg- 
etative portion,  and  the  absorbent 
organ,  known  as  the  scutellum,  which 
on  the  germination  of  the  seed,  trans- 
fers the  substance  of  the  endosperm 
to  the  embryo  for  its  nourishment. 
Surrounding  the  endosperm  and*  em- 
bryo is  a  single  layer  of  aleiirone  cells 
known  as  the  aleurone  layer,  which 
makes  up  about  eight  per  cent  of  the 
weight  of  the  grain. 

Just  outside  of  and  surrounding  the 
aleurone  layer  is  a  single  layer  of  col- 
FIG.  53.  —  Cross-sec-  lapsed  cells  called  the  tegmen  or  nu- 
se°cLandaftrgrahierof  cellus.    This  is  in  turn  surrounded  by 

Transverse  Action    the  t6Sta'  which  COVering  Contains  most 

of  an  unripe  grain,   of  the  coloring  matter  of  the  grain. 

(1)  Ovary    wall    or    ,—.,.,.  - 

pericarp;  (2)  outer  This  coloring  matter  may  vary  from 

Eszg£ii§ the  paler  shades  °f  yellow  through  am- 

(4)  remains  of  nu-  ber  to  a  deep  red,  and  gives  the  grain 

cellus;  (5)  aleurone  *. 

cells;  (6)  starch  its  characteristic  color  so  often  used 
in  the  classification  of  wheat  varieties. 
The  three  layers  above  described  are  inclosed  in  the 
pericarp  or  outside  covering,  which  corresponds  to  the 
pod  in  the  pea.  The  nucellus,  testa  and  pericarp  con- 
stitute what  is  commonly  spoken  of  as  wheat  bran. 

The  wheat  grain  is  very  variable  as  regards  size,  color, 
hardness,  shape,  weight,  and  composition,  all  of  these  char- 


WHEAT 


313 


acters  being  influenced  by  type,  variety,  soil,  and  season. 

383.  Composition.  —  The  United  States  Department 

of  Agriculture  reports  the  composition  of  wheat  as  follows : 

TABLE  32.    COMPOSITION  OF  WHEAT  GRAIN  AND  WHEAT  STRAW  l 


GRAIN  (PER  CENT) 

STRAW  (PER  CENT) 

Mini- 
mum 

Maxi- 
mum 

Average 

Mini- 
mum 

Maxi- 
mum 

Average 

Water  
Ash 

7.1 
0.8 
8.1 
.4 
64.8 
1.3 

14.0 
3.6 
17.2 
3.1 
78.6 
3.9 

10.5 
1.8 
11.9 
1.8 
71.9 
2.1 

6.5 
3.0 
2.9 
34.3 
31.0 
0.8 

17.9 
7.0 
5.0 
42.7 
50.6 
1.8 

9.6 
4.2 
3.4 
38.1 
43.4 
1.3 

Protein  
Crude  fiber  '.  .  .  . 
Nitrogen-free  extract  . 
Fat  

An  important  constituent  of  the  protein  in  the  wheat 
grain  is  gluten  which  is  a  mixture  of  the  proteids  gliadin 
and  glutenin.  The  gluten  is  directly  responsible  for  that 
property  of  wheat  flour  which  causes  it  to  form  a  porous 
bread  when  mixed  with  water,  leavened,  and  baked.  The 
gluten,  being  tenacious  and  elastic,  imprisons  the  carbonic 
acid  gas  caused  by  the  fermentive  action  of  the  yeast,  and 
the  expanding,  imprisoned  gas  causes  the  bread  to  rise 
and  become  porous.  The  bread-making  qualities  of  wheat 
are  determined  largely  by  both  the  amount  and  quality 
of  the  gluten  that  it  contains.  The  quality  of  gluten  is 
dependent  upon  the  relative  proportions  of  gliadin  and 
glutenin  in  its  makeup,  the  most  desirable  proportion  be- 
ing  from  65  to  75  per  cent  of  the  former  and  25  to  35  per 
cent  of  the  latter. 

The  composition  of  wheat,  particularly  as  regards  its 
protein  content,  is  greatly  modified  by  seasonal  conditions 
and  to  a  less  extent  by  fertilizers.  A  survey  of  the  experi- 
mental evidence  on  this  point  reveals  that  the  composition 
of  any  given  variety  will  be  uniform  from  year  to  year 
1  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Office  of  Exp.  Sta.  E.  S.,  Bui.  11. 


314        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


only  when  grown  under  the  same  climatic  conditions  and 
allowed  to  mature  fully.  Any  condition  that  interrupts 
maturation  will  result  in  a  higher  percentage  of  protein 
in  the  crop,  especially  the  grain,  due  to  the  relatively 
low  starch  formation  under  such  conditions.  Large, 
plump  kernels  produced  under  favorable  conditions  usually 
contain  a  lower  percentage  of  protein  than  small,  shriveled 
kernels  produced  under  unfavorable  conditions. 

TYPES   AND   VARIETIES   OF   WHEAT 

Wheat  varieties  are  most  often  classified  on  the  basis 
of  those  differences  induced  by  environment  rather  than 
on  the  basis  of  botanical  differences.  However,  wheat 
types  present  botanical  relationships  of  sufficient  impor- 
tance to  merit  consideration. 

384.  Botanical  classification  of  wheat  types.  —  There 
are  eight  principal  types  of  cultivated  wheat.  Of  these 
eight  types,  six  are  closely  related  and  will  therefore  cross 
readily  with  each  other.  The  classification  here  given  is 
the  one  made  by  Hackel,  and  is  taken  from  Hunt's  "Ce- 
reals in  America:" 


monococcum  (1)  einkom 
spelta  (2)  spelt 
dicoccum  (3)  emmer 

vulgare         (4)  common  wheat 
compactum  (5)  club  or  square-head  wheat 
I  turgidum      (6)  poulard  wheat 
( durum         (7)  durum  wheat 
polonicum  (8)  Polish  wheat 


Triticum  \  salivum 


tcnax 


All  of  the  subspecies  of  Triticum  sativum  cross  readily 
with  each  other.  Hunt  states  that  "Einkorn  never  and 
Polish  wheat  rarely,  gives  rise  to  a  fertile  cross  with  com- 
mon wheat." 


WHEAT  315 

385.  Einkorn    (T.   monococcum).  -  -  This    species  has 
been  grown  only  in  an  experimental  way  in  the  United 
States.    It  is  a  narrow-leaved,  slender-stemmed,  heavily 
bearded  wheat  with  flattened,  compact  spike,  and  com- 
pressed grain  that  shows  an  angular  form.    It  most  nearly 
approaches  the  assumed  wild  form  of  wheat  and  has  had 
no  practical  value  for  the  American  farmer. 

386.  Spelt.    (T.   sativum   var.    spelta).  —  This  species 
has  been  cultivated  for  centuries  in  Europe  and  Africa, 
it  being  a  very  ancient  form.     Unlike  common  wheat, 
the  spikelets  of  spelt  do  not  break  away  from  the  rachis 
leaving  the  zigzag  stem,  but  in  separating,  a  part  of  the 
rachis  breaks  off  and  remains  attached  to  each  spikelet. 
There  are  both  winter  and  spring  varieties.    The  winter 
beardless  variety  has  proved  most  profitable.    It  is  little 
grown  in  this  country  and  in  other  countries  has  been 
largely  replaced  by  other  types. 

387.  Emmer    (T.    sativum    var.    dicoccum).  —  This 
wheat  looks  very  much  like  spelt  and  is  often  confused 
with  it.    The  stems  are  usually  pithy,  leaves  covered  with 
velvety  hairs,  heads  flattened,  two-rowed,  and  bearded. 
Emmer  is  valuable  as  a  stock  food  and  is  better  adapted 
to  dry  regions  than  either  einkorn  or  spelt. 

388.  Common  wheat  (T.  sativum  var.  vulgar e).  — This 
subspecies   is   the   wheat    commonly   grown   throughout 
the  wheat-growing  countries  of  the  world.     It  is  more 
closely  related  to  the  club  wheat  than  to  any  other  sub- 
species. » 

389.  Club    wheat    (T.   sativum    var.   compactum).  — 
This  subspecies  produces  a  shorter,  more  compact  spike 
and  a  shorter,  stiffer  straw  than  common  wheat.     The 
apex  of  the  spike  is  enlarged,  and  consequently  presents 
a  club-shape.    This  is  the  common  wheat  of  Chile  and  the 


316        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

Pacific  coast  region  of  the  United  States.  Both  winter 
and  spring  varieties  are  in  use,  the  former  being  adapted 
only  to  mild  climates. 

390.  Poulard  wheat  (To    sativum    var.    turgidum).  — 
A  broad-headed,  short,  stiff-bearded  wheat  grown  in  the 
Mediterranean  region.    It  is  much  like  durum  wheat. 

391.  Durum  wheat  (T.  sativum  var.  durum).  —  This 


FIG.  54.  —  Representing  heads  of  five  varieties  of  hard  winter  and  hard 
spring  wheat:  (1)  Turkey  Winter,  a  hard  winter  variety;  (2)  Fife,  a 
hard  red  spring  wheat;  (3)  Preston,  a  hard  spring  wheat;  (4)  Blue- 
stem,  a  hard  red  spring  variety,  and  (5)  a  very  hard  amber  spring 
wheat. 

wheat  produces  the  flour  from  which  macaroni  is  made, 
its  higher  gluten  content  and  greater  density  making  it 
superior  for  this  purpose.  It  is  a  tall-growing  sort,  with 
broad,  smooth  leaves  and  heavily  bearded  heads  resem- 
bling barley,  with  which  it  is  often  confused.  The  grains 
are  large  with  pointed  ends,  semi-transparent,  and  of 
lower  starch  content  than  common  wheat.  Lyon  states 
that  "the  qualities  that  give  value  to  durum  wheat  are  its 
ability  to  withstand  drought  and  its  resistance  to  rust." 


WHEAT 


317 


In  the  United  States  durum  wheat  is  produced  princi- 
pally in  North  and  South  Dakota,  Minnesota,  Nebraska, 
western  Kansas,  eastern  Colorado,  Wyoming  and  Montana. 
A  small  amount  is  grown  in  northwestern  Texas.  One  va- 
riety of  durum 
wheat  has  been 
grown  in  Texas  un- 
der the  name  of 
Nicaragua  wheat. 

392.  Polish  wheat 
(T.     polonicum).  - 
This  wheat  is  grown 
in  southern  Europe. 
It  is  not  a  produc- 
tive   type,    but    is 
thought  by  some  to 
be    fairly    well 
adapted  to  the  arid 
districts  of  this  coun- 
try.  In  Polish  wheat 
the    palea    of    the 
lowest  flower  is  only 
half -as  long  as  the 
flowering  glume.    In 
common  wheat  the 
palea  is  as  long  as 
its  glume. 

393.  Wheat  varie- 
ties. —  More    than 

a  thousand  varieties  of  wheat  are  known.  Most  of  these 
belong  to  the  type  known  as  common  wheat.  From  this 
great  number  of  varieties,  not  more  tjian  fifteen  or  twenty 
are  important  in  the  cotton-belt.  No  very  satisfactory 


FIG.  55.  —  Heads  of  some  beardless  winter 
varieties  of  wheat:  1,  Fultz;  2,  Leap  Pro- 
lific; 3,  Purple  Straw;  4,  Poole;  5,  Mealy; 
6,  Dawson  Golden  Chaff. 


318        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

classification  of  wheat  varieties  has,  as  yet,  been  made. 
The  most  common  classifications  are  those  based  on  time 
of  sowing,  as  spring  and  winter  wheat  (Fig.  54);  on  the 
color  of  the  grain,  as  red  and  white  wheat;  on  the  density 


FIG.  56.  —  Heads  of  some  bearded  winter  wheat 
varieties:  1,  Turkey;  2,  Bearded  Purple  Straw; 
3,  Fulcaster. 

of  the  grain,  as  hard  and  soft  wheat;  on  the  presence  or 
absence  of  awns,  as  bearded  and  beardless  wheat,  and  on 
the  products  for  which  they  are  grown,  as  bread  and 
macaroni  wheat. 

394.  Varieties  foK  the  cotton-belt   (Figs.  55,  56).  - 
Practically  all  of  the  wheat  grown  in  the  cotton-belt  is  of 


WHEAT  319 

the  soft  or  semi-hard  red  winter  type.  In  north  central 
Texas  and  central  Oklahoma  there  is  a  transition  zone  in 
which  varieties  of  either  the  hard  red  winter  wheat,  belong- 
ing to  the  Turkey  or  Crimean  type,  or  the  soft  or  semi-hard 
wheats  may  be  grown.  However,  the  latter  type  of  wheat  is 
more  commonly  grown  in  this  region  and  gives,  on  the  av- 
erage, more  satisfactory  returns  than  the  Turkey  wheats. 
A  list,  containing  the  names  of  varieties  for  the  cotton- 
belt  that  have  been  found  to  do  well  on  the  average  for 
several  seasons  is  given  below.  The  varieties  named  are 
grouped  by  states,  the  recommendations  being  based 
largely  on  results  obtained  by  the  various  southern  ex- 
periment stations  and  also  by  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Indus- 
try of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture: 


BEARDED 
STATE  VARIETIES  OR 

BEARDLESS 

Alabama Blue  Stem  or  Purple  Straw. .  .  Beardless 

Fultz Beardless 

Golden  Chaff Beardless 

Alabama  Red Beardless 

Red  Wonder Bearded 

Fulcaster .  .  .  .  Bearded 


Arkansas Red  May 

Fultz Beardless 

Fulcaster Bearded 

Georgia .  Fultz * Beardless 

Georgia  Red Beardless 

Blue  Stem Beardless 

Red  May Beardless 

Fulcaster Bearded 

Florida Wheat  not  successfully  grown 


320        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


STATE 


VARIETIES 


BEARDED 

OR 
BEARDLESS 


Louisiana  (Principally  for 

Grazing) Red  May Beardless 

Fultz Beardless 

Purple  Straw Beardless 

Harvest  King Beardless 

Fulcaster Bearded 

Mississippi Fultz Beardless 

Blue  Stem. Beardless 

Fulcaster Bearded 

North  Carolina Golden  Chaff Beardless 

Purple  Straw Beardless 

Harvest  King Beardless 

Fultz Beardless 

Red  May Beardless 

Fulcaster Bearded 

Dietz Bearded 

Red  Wonder Bearded 

Lancaster Bearded 

Oklahoma  (Soft  winter 

varieties) Red  Russian.  .  . Beardless 

Early  Red  Clawson Beardless 

New  Red  Wonder Beardless 

Missouri  Blue  Stem Bearded 

Sibley  New  Golden Bearded 

Fulcaster Bearded 

Oklahoma  (Hard  winter 

varieties) Turkey  Red Bearded 

Theiss. Bearded 

Pester  Boden Bearded 

Weissenburg Bearded 

Kharkof .  .  ..Bearded 


WHEAT  321 


BEARDED 
STATE  VARIETIES  OR 

BEARDLESS 

South  Carolina Red  May Beardless 

Fultz Beardless 

Lancaster Bearded 

Red  Wonder Bearded 

Fulcaster Bearded 

Tennessee Poole Beardless 

Fulcaster Bearded 

Mediterranean Bearded 

Nigger .  . • Bearded 

Texas  (Soft  winter 

varieties) Fultz Beardless 

Poole .' Beardless 

German  Emperor Beardless 

Michigan  Amber Beardless 

Mediterranean Bearded 

Fulcaster Bearded 

Texas  (Hard  winter 

varieties) Defiance Bearded 

Kharkof Bearded 

Turkey Bearded 

Crimean Bearded 

395.  Wheat-growing  areas  of  the  cotton-belt.  —  Nearly 
all  of  the  wheat  in  the  cotton-belt  is  produced  in  north- 
central  Texas,  northeastern  Mississippi,  and  the  central 
and  northern  sections  of  Alabama,  Georgia,  and  South 
Carolina.  Much  wheat  is  produced  in  the  Piedmont  and 
mountain  sections  of  North  Carolina,  practically  all  of 
Tennessee  and  Virginia,  and  the  central  part  of  Oklahoma. 
These  areas  are  either  partially  or  wholly  outside  of  the 


322        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

cotton-belt.    Some  wheat  is  produced  on  the  red  lands  of 
northern  Louisiana. 

396.  Improvement  of  varieties.  —  The  principles 
underlying  the  improvement  of  wheat  varieties  are  the 
same  as  those  discussed  in  connection  with  the  improve- 
ment of  oats.  The  qualities  that  are  especially  desired 
in  varieties"  of  wheat  for  the  cotton-belt  are  high  yield, 
rust-resistance,  drought-resistance,  earliness,  and  a  higher 
protein  content. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 

WHEAT  —  CLIMATQ,  SOILS,   ROTATIONS,   CUL- 
TURAL METHODS  AND  HARVESTING 

THE  wheat  plant  is  very  sensitive  to  soil  conditions.  It 
is  also  much  affected  by  climate,  particularly  as  regards  the 
ease  with  which  it  succumbs  to  diseases,  especially  rust. 
For  these  reasons  there  are  vast  areas  in  the  cotton-belt 
that  cannot  be  made  to  produce  wheat  successfully. 

397.  Climate.  —  The  range  of  climate  under  which 
wheat  is  successfully  produced  throughout  the  world  is 
very  wide.  The  bulk  of  the  world's  wheat  crop,  however, 
is  produced  in  regions  having  cold  winters.  The  three 
noted  exceptions  to  this  statement  are  the  crops  of  Cal- 
ifornia, Egypt,  and  India.  In  the  Northern  hemisphere 
the  wheat  industry  is  gradually  spreading  northward, 
first  as  spring-sown  varieties  which  after  much  selection 
and  manipulation  are  sown  with  success  in  the  fall.  With 
proper  attention  spring  wheat  can  often  be  changed  to 
winter  wheat  in  a  relatively  short  time.  Spring  wheat 
once  grew  over  Iowa,  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  where  only 
winter  wheat  is  now  grown.  This  same  change  is  taking 
place  in  the  Dakotas  and  Minnesota.  These  modifica- 
tions, while  partly  due  to  changed  cultural  methods,  show 
also  the  great  adaptability  of  wheat  to  unfavorable  cli- 
matic conditions.  In  the  preceding  chapter  reference  was 
made  to  the  influence  of  climate  on  the  chemical  and 
physical  constitution  of  the  wheat  kernel.  The  protein 

323 


324        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

and  starch  content  of  wheat  are  extremely  sensitive  to 
climatic  factors,  although  in  an  inverse  ratio.  Low  al- 
titudes with  an  abundance  of  moisture  produce  soft  wheats, 
whereas  the  hard  red  wheats  are  found  in  the  relatively 
dry,  elevated  plains  of  the  central  West.  As  either  ocean 
is  approached  the  grain  becomes  softer  and  of  lighter  color. 
An  excellent  illustration  of  the  influence  of  climate  on  the 
physical  properties  of  wheat  is  to  be  found  on  our  Pacific 
coast.  When  produced  directly  on  the  coast  the  kernels 
are  soft,  dark  and  thick-skinned.  The  physical  characters 
shade  off  gradually  to  the  inland  district  where  the  kernels 
are  very  hard  and  thin-skinned.  The  best  quality  to- 
gether with  the  highest  yields  of  wheat  are  possible  only 
in  regions  of  cold  winters,  followed  by  long,  cool,  moder- 
ately wet  spring  seasons  and  dry  sunny  weather  during 
ripening. 

398.  Soils.  —  Wheat  makes  its  best  growth  on  clay 
or  clay  loam  soils.  It  will  not  give  profitable  returns  on 
deep  sandy  soils,  nor  on  sour  or  acid  soils.  Sandy  soils 
should  never  be  used  for  wheat -growing,  and  acid  soils 
should  be  used  only  after  the  application  of  from  1000  to 
2000  pounds  of  slacked  lime,  or  2000  to  4000  pounds  of 
ground  limestone,  to  the  acre.  In  the  cotton-belt  the 
best  wheat  soils  are  the  reddish  clay  or  clay  loams  of  the 
Cecil  series  occurring  extensively  in  the  Piedmont  region 
of  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Alabama, 
the  limestone  valleys  of  the  above  states,  the  black  waxy 
lime  lands  of  north  central  Texas,  northeastern  Mississippi 
and  central  Alabama  and  the  red  lands  of  northern  Lou- 
isiana. Wheat  is  a  relatively  weak  feeder  and  demands  a 
fairly  rich  soil  of  good  physical  constitution.  Hence  the 
soils  above  mentioned  must  usually  be  much  modified  by 
the  addition  of  vegetable  matter  in  the  form  of  animal  or 


WHEA T  —  CULTURAL  METHODS      325 

green  manures  and  in  many  cases  by  the  application  of 
commercial  fertilizers. 

399.  Rotations.  —  In  the  cotton-belt  the  crop  pre- 
ceding wheat  is  usually  corn  in  which  cowpeas  have  been 
sown  as  a  catch-crop  between  the  rows.  That  it  is  advis- 
able to  have  wheat  follow  a  soil-improving  crop  like  cow- 
peas  or  soybeans  when  possible,  has  been  amply  demon- 
strated by  both  farm  experience  and  carefully  conducted 
experiments.  In  sections  where  red  clover  or  crimson 
clover  do  well  these  crops  usually  follow  the  wheat  in  the 
rotation,  the  wheat  being  seeded  after  corn  grown  with 
or  without  cowpeas.  In  devising  a  rotation  for  wheat  the 
farmer  should  keep  in  mind  the  following:  (1)  When  pos- 
sible allow  the  wheat  to  follow  a  soil-improving  crop;  (2) 
the  wheat  should  not  occupy  a  position  in  the  rotation  at 
which  time  the  soil  is  foul  with  weeds,  as  they  may  render 
the  soil  too  loose  for  best  results,  or  otherwise  injure  the 
crop;  (3)  wheat  should  not  follow  oats  or  rye  in  the  rota- 
tion as  these  crops  are  likely  to  be  followed  by  volunteer 
plants  the  seeds  of  which  would  become  mixed  with  the 
wheat.  i  ^' 

For  the  red  clay  and  valley  lands  of  the  Piedmont  sec- 
tion the  North  Carolina  Station  suggests  the  following 
rotation :  First  year  —  wheat  with  red  clover  sown  in  the 
spring  on  the  fall-sown  wheat;  second  year  —  red  clover 
with  the  second  crop  turned  under  after  maturity  of  seed 
for  soil  improvement  and  for  storing  seed  in  the  soil;  third 
year  —  corn. 

Duggar  suggests  the  following  rotation  for  sections  where 
red  clover  does  not  thrive :  First  year  —  cotton,  with  crim- 
son clover  seeded  in  September  between  the  rows;  second 
year  —  cotton;  third  year  —  corn  with  cowpeas  between 
the  rows;  fourth  year  —  wheat  followed  by  cowpeas. 


326        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

An  excellent  three-year  rotation  adapted  to  a  large  part 
of  the  wheat-growing  area  of  the  cotton-belt  is:  First 
year  —  cotton ;  second  year  —  corn  with  cowpeas  between 
the  rows;  third  year  —  wheat  followed  by  cowpeas. 

The  Kentucky  Station  has  adopted  the  following  rota- 
tion :  First  year  —  corn  followed  by  rye  for  a  winter  cover- 
crop;  second  year  —  soy-beans  or  cowpeas;  third  year  — 
wheat;  fourth  year  —  clover. 

400.  Fertilizers.  —  Fertilizers,  if  necessary  for  wheat, 
are  most  profitable  when  the  crop  is  grown  in  a  rotation 
that  keeps  the  soil  well  supplied  with  decayed  vegetable 
matter.  On  much  of  the  waxy  lime  lands  of  Texas  and 
Alabama  direct  fertilization  of  wheat  is  unnecessary. 
These  soils  usually  contain  an  abundance  of  mineral  mat- 
ter, and  the  indirect  method  of  fertilizing  by  growing 
wheat  in  a  rotation  that  supplies  the  soil  with  organic  mat- 
ter renders  this  mineral  matter  available  and  supplies  an 
abundance  of  nitrogen.  The  red  clay  and  valley  soils  of 
the  Piedmont  region  are  generally  well  supplied  with 
potash  but  are  rather  deficient  in  phosphoric  acid.  The 
amount  of  nitrogen  in  these  soils  varies,  of  course,  with  the 
amount  of  organic  matter  present.  Wheat  following  a 
soil-improving  crop  on  these  Piedmont  soils  will  usually 
need  the  application  of  a  phosphatic  fertilizer  only.  In  the 
older  wheat-growing  regions  of  the  cotton-belt,  particularly 
when  the  wheat  is  grown  on  land  that  has  been  under 
cultivation  for  many  years,  it  is  customary  to  fertilize 
rather  heavily.  On  such  soils  liberal  fertilization  is  often 
profitable,  but  numerous  experiments  have  clearly  demon- 
strated that  the  yield  does  not  increase  proportionately 
as  the  quantity  of  fertilizer  is  increased.  Care  should 
be  exercised  to  see  that  the  profitable  limit  is  not  ex- 
ceeded. 


WHEA T  —  CULTURAL  METHODS      327 

Burgess,  in  discussing  the  fertilization  of  wheat  on  the 
Piedmont  soils  of  North  Carolina,  says: 

"A  good  application  of  fertilizer  for  wheat  is  300  to  600 
pounds  per  acre.  Where  the  land  has  been  well  prepared 
and  is  in  good  condition,  it  will  pay  to  fertilize  liberally. 
As  a  rule,  the  fertilizer  should  be  applied  in  the  fall  at  the 
time  of  seeding.  Good  results  will  be  obtained  from  the 
use  of  one-half  the  nitrogen  in  the  fall  along  with  the 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash  and  the  other  half  as  a  top 
dressing  in  the  spring  after  growth  has  well  started  from 
nitrate  of  soda  or  sulphate  of  ammonia.  Where  wheat  or 
other  small  grain  has  been  grown  in  one  of  the  rotations 
suggested  above  or  similar  ones  with  soil-improving  crops, 
one-half  of  the  nitrogen  in  the  mixtures  may  be  omitted 
after  the  rotation  has  been  repeated  one  or  more  times, 
and  may  be  left  out  altogether  after  sufficient  organic 
matter,  or  humus,  has  been  stored  in  the  soil  to  produce  a 
sufficiently  large  development  of  stalk  for  a  good  crop  of 
grain.  In  this  case  a  top  dressing  of  75  to  100  pounds  per 
acre  of  nitrate  of  soda  may  be  given  just  about  the  time 
the  plants  begin  to  joint  in  the  spring  if  the  crop  is  not 
found  growing  off  nicely."  1 

CULTURAL  METHODS 

401.  Preparing  the  seed-bed.  —  The  ideal  seed-bed 
for  wheat  is  one  that  is  thoroughly  pulverized,  well  com- 
pacted, with  a  loose  mulch  on  the  surface  and  with  a  good 
contact  with  the  subsoil.  To  accomplish  the  above  re- 
sults, the  land  should  be  plowed  as  early  as  practicable 
after  the  previous  crop  has  been  removed.  Following 
plowing,  the  disk  and  smoothing  harrow  should  be  used 
liberally  to  destroy  clods,  keep  down  grass,  and  to  aid  the 
1  N.  C.  Dep't  of  Agr.  Bui,  whole  no.  159,  vol.  32,  No.  10, 


328        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

soil  in  settling  and  becoming  firm.  Running  a  heavy 
roller  over  the  soil  soon  after  plowing  to  break  the  clods 
and  firm  the  soil  is  often  advisable.  The  roller  should  be 
followed  immediately  with  a  smoothing  harrow.  In  the 
drier  wheat-growing  regions  the  value  of  early  plowing 
for  wheat  cannot  be  overestimated  as  is  shown  by  an  ex- 
periment made  by  the  Oklahoma  Station,1  in  which  plats 
were  plowed  on  July  19th,  August  15th,  and  Septem- 
ber llth.  All  plats  were  seeded  September  15th: 

Date  of  Plowing  Yield  to  the  acre,  bu. 

July  19th, 31.3 

August  15th, 23.5 

September  llth, 15.3 

Plowing  to  a  moderate  depth  is  usually  better  for  wheat 
than  very  deep  or  very  shallow  plowing.  On  soils  of  a 
rather  loose  structure  and  particularly  where  the  preceding 
crop  was  corn  that  received  good  cultivation,  wheat  is 
sometimes  drilled  in  without  plowing,  the  land  being 
disked  thoroughly  before  the  crop  is  seeded  so  as  to  make 
a  good  seed-bed  three  or  four  inches  deep.  This  method 
of  preparation  often  gives  good  results,  but  in  the  large 
number  of  cases  plowing  before  harrowing  is  advisable 
and  is  absolutely  essential  on  compact  clay  soils.  Soils 
on  which  very  much  vegetation  in  the  form  of  green- 
manure,  weeds  or  grass  is  growing  should  be  thoroughly 
disked  before  plowing,  to  cut  up  the  vegetation  and  render 
the  soil  more  easily  compacted. 

402.  Date  of  seeding.  —  Wheat  is  hardier  toward 
cold  than  oats,  and  may  be  needed  later.  Where  the 
Hessian  fly  is  troublesome,  as  is  the  case  in  North  Caro- 
lina, northern  Georgia,  and  northern  Alabama,  it  is  best 
to  delay  seeding  until  immediately  after  the  first  frost, 
1  Okla.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  47,  pp.  26-48. 


WHEAT  —  CULTURAL  METHODS      329 

as  the  fly  lays  no  more  eggs  after  this  date.  Wheat  sown 
in  northern  Georgia  during  the  last  10  days  in  October 
has  been  found  to  escape  injury  from  the  Hessian  fly. 
In  sections  where  the  Hessian  fly -does  not  injure  wheat, 
larger  yields  can  be  secured  by  seeding  rather  early  to 
allow  the  plants  to  make  a  vigorous  root-development 
before  cold  weather,  and  to  allow  the  crop  to  make  the 
maximum  utilization  of  the  plant-food  in  the  soil.  Duggar 
suggests  the  following  periods  during  which  the  bulk  of 
the  wheat  crop  should  be  seeded  in  Alabama: 

North  Alabama,  October  10th  to  November  1st. 

Central  Alabama,  November  1st  to  15th. 

South  Alabama,  November  15th  to  30th. 

In  the  wheat-growing  regions  of  Oklahoma,  the  winter 
wheat  is  sown  from  the  15th  of  September  to  the  15th  of 
October.  Field  trials  by  the  Oklahoma  Station  do  not 
indicate  much  difference  between  the  respective  dates. 
In  north  Texas  wheat  is  usually  seeded  during  the  latter 
part  of  October  and  the  first  part  of  November. 

403.  Rate  of  seeding.  —  The  usual  rate  of  seeding  for 
wheat  is  from  4  to  6  pecks  to  the  acre.    The  greater  num- 
ber of  experiments  on  this  point  indicate  that  under  favor- 
able conditions,  4  pecks  are  sufficient  when  drilled  and  5 
pecks  when  broadcast.    If  the  seed-bed  is  poorly  prepared, 
or  a  poor  quality  of  seed  is  used,  larger  amounts  should 
be  sown.    Also  more  seed  is  required  for  late  sowing  than 
for  early  sowing  and  more  for  poor  soil  than  for  rich  soil. 

404.  Methods  of  seeding.  —  The  methods  employed 
in  seeding  wheat  are  (1)  broadcast  seeding,  and  (2)  seeding 
in  drills  6,  7  or  8  inches  apart. 

A  review  of  the  experimental  evidence  on  drilling  ver- 
sus broadcasting  wheat  shows  many  advantages  in  favor 
of  drilling,  chief  of  which  'are:  (1)  Increased  yield.  The 


330        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

seed  being  sown  at  a  uniform  depth,  germination  is  also 
uniform.  A  smaller  percentage  of  the  young  plants  are 
injured  by  dry  weather  subsequent  to  seeding.  The  seed 
being  sown  in  slight  furrows  is  not  so  subject  to  " heaving" 
or  winter-killing.  (2)  The  grain  ripens  more  uniformly. 
(3)  A  saving  of  from  one  to  two  pecks  of  seed  wheat  to  the 
acre  when  the  seed  is  drilled. 

In  drilling  wheat,  care  should  be  exercised  to  see  that 
the  seed  is  deposited  on  the  bottom  of  the  furrows  opened 
by  the  drill.  If  the  seed  is  caught  by  the  closing  furrow 
before  it  has  reached  the  bottom,  germination  is  likely  not 
to  be  uniform.  Grains  that  are  placed  on  the  firm  soil  at 
the  bottom  of  the  furrows  are  in  an  ideal  position  for  se- 
curing moisture. 

405.  Wheat-seeding  machinery.  —  The  evolution  of 
seeding  machines  for  wheat  involves  four  different  stages 
of  improvement.  These  are  (1)  the  broadcast  seeder 
where  gravity  alone  is  utilized  for  the  purpose  of  distrib- 
uting the  seed;  (2)  the  broadcast  seeder  in  which  the 
seed  is  brought  from  the  seed  cups  by  feed-wheels  attached 
to  a  revolving  shaft  spoken  of  as  " force  feed"  instead  of 
" gravity  feed";  (3)  the  ordinary  drill  with  force  feed,  the 
grain  falling  into  a  tube  which  instead  of  scattering  it, 
carries  it  in  a  steady  stream  to  the  bottom  of  the  slight 
furrows  produced  by  the  drill;  (4)  the  drill  with  attach- 
ments to  press  the  soil  firmly  about  the  seed,  known  as 
the  press-drill.  This  is  considered  the  best  machine  for 
seeding  wheat. 

The  wheat  drill  is  made  in  three  different  forms  as  re- 
gards the  arrangement  for  depositing  the  seed  in  the  soil. 
These  are  (1)  hoe-drills,  by  which  the  ground  is  opened 
with  small  shovels,  called  hoes,  the  tubes  depositing  the 
seed  in  a  stream  into  the  furrow  immediately  behind  each 


W HE  A  T  —  CULTURAL  METHODS  331 

hoe;  (2)  disk-drills,  and  (3)  drills  with  runners  or  shoes 
known  as  shoe-drills.  The  hoe-drills,  while  operating  un- 
der possibly  a  larger  number  of  conditions  than  the  other 
types,  are  heavy  of  draft  and  clog  easily  on  filthy  land. 
The  disk-drill  is  preferable  to  other  types  where  the  land 
contains  much  litter.  Most  drills  are  equipped  with  fer- 
tilizer attachments,  and  attachments  for  sowing  grass  or 
clover  seed  can  be  purchased  if  desired. 

406.  Cultivating  wheat.  —  Wheat  is  often  harrowed 
with  an  adjustable  spike-tooth  harrow  or  weeder  in  the 
early  spring  before  the  booting  stage.     This  practice  is 
especially  beneficial  on  stiff  soils  that  are  deficient  in  vege- 
table matter.     Drilled  wheat  is  more  satisfactorily  har- 
rowed than  broadcast  wheat.     The  practice  of  planting 
wheat  in  wide  drills  and  cultivating  it  much  as  we  culti- 
vate corn  has  been  advocated  by  a  few  farmers,  but  has 
never  become  common  in  this  country. 

407.  Pasturing  wheat.  —  Wheat,  like  oats,  furnishes 
excellent  winter  pasture  for  almost  all  kinds  of  live-stock. 
The  precautions  to  be  observed  in  pasturing  wheat  are 
the  same  as  for  oats,  paragraph  360. 

HARVESTING  WHEAT 

408.  Methods.  —  The  methods  of  harvesting,  thrash- 
ing, and  storing  wheat  are  similar  to  those  of  oats.     In 
the  greater  part  of  the  cotton-belt  and  throughout  the 
entire  eastern  United  States,  the  self-binder  is  largely 
used  for  cutting  the  crop.    In  the  Great  Plains  area  west 
of  the  Mississippi  River  both  self-binders  and  headers  are 
used,  the  latter  machines  being  used  principally  in  the 
western  sections  of  Kansas,  Nebraska  and  the  Dakotas. 
The    combined    harvester    and    thrasher,    which    cuts, 
thrashes,  and  sacks  the  grain  in  one  operation,  is  very 


332        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

generally  used  on  the  Pacific  coast  and  in  the  extreme 
Northwest. 

409.  When  tp  harvest.  —  For  the  production  of  grain, 
wheat  should  be  harvested  at  that  stage  of  maturity  when 
the  grains  are  still  sufficiently  soft  to  be  easily  indented 
with  the  thumb  nail,  but  too  hard  to  be  easily  crushed 
between  the  fingers.    At  this  stage  most  of  the  straw  will 
have  turned  yellow.    According  to  Hunt,  "the  indications 
are  that  if  allowed  to  stand  beyond  the  period  of  full 
maturation,  a  slight  decrease  in  the  actual  substance  of 
the  grain  may  take  place,"  as  the  seed  continues  to  respire 
and  give  off  carbon  dioxide,  as  explained  by  Deherain. 

410.  Methods  of  handling  as  related  to  quality  of 
grain.x —  East  of  the  Mississippi  River,  most  of  the  wheat 
in  the  cotton-belt  is  either  stacked  in  the  open  or  stored 
in  large  barns  as  soon  as  it  becomes  sufficiently  dry  in 
the  shock.    In  Texas  and  Oklahoma  and  in  fact  through- 
out most  of  the  Great  Plains  regions  a  large  proportion  of 
the  wheat  crop  is  thrashed  direct  from  the  shock.    The 
wheat  is  allowed  to  stand  in  the  shock  from  three  to  six 
weeks  or  longer,  during  which  time  it  is  often  exposed  to 
heavy  rainfall.    In  many  cases  the  shocks  are  very  care- 
lessly constructed  and  entirely  unprotected  by  cap-bundles. 
Investigations  have  shown  that  the  exposure  of  wheat 
in  the  shock  to  the  effect  of  alternate  rain  and  hot  sun 
"  causes  the  kernels  to  swell  and  the  branny  coats  to  loosen, 
destroying  the  natural  color  or  'bloom'  and  giving  them 
what  is  termed  a  'bleached'  appearance. >;    As  the  grade 
that  is  given  to  wheat  upon  the  terminal  markets  is  deter- 
mined largely  by  its  appearance,  condition  and  test  weight 
a  bushel,  that  portion  of  the  crop  that  has  been  affected 
by   exposure  as  described  above,  must  of  necessity  be 
graded  lower  than  wheat  marketed  in  good  condition. 


WHEA  T  —  CULTURAL  METHODS     333 

As  a  rule,  millers  hold  that  weathered  grain  is  much  im- 
proved in  quality  if  it  is  allowed  to  go  through  a 'sweat 
in  the  stack.  If  the  grain  is  thrashed  and  stored  in  the 
bin  before  it  has  gone  through  a  sweat,  the  result  is  that 
the  grain  "sweats"  in  the  bin  where  the  circulation  of' 
air  is  much  more  limited  than  in  the  stack,  the  heat  is 
not  carried  away  rapidly  enough,  and  the  temperature 
becomes  so  high  as  to  often  result  in  "heat-damaged  or 
bin-burnt"  grain.  Unless  the  period  from  harvesting  to 
thrashing  is  quite  dry,  shock-thrashed  wheat  almost 
invariably  contains  a  higher  moisture  content  than  stack- 
thrashed  wheat.  This,  of  course,  renders  the  shock- 
thrashed  grain  more  difficult  to  keep  in  good  condition 
when  stored. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 

WHEAT  —  WEEDS,  INSECT  ENEMIES  AND  FUN- 
GOUS DISEASES 

THE  injury  to  growing  wheat  caused  by  weeds,  insects 
and  diseases  is  surprisingly  large.  A  very  brief  description 
of  those  pests  of  greatest  economic  importance  together 
with  the  more  important  remedial  measures  are  given  in 
this  chapter. 

411.  Weeds.  —  The  almost  universal  occurrence  of 
certain  species  of  weeds  in  wheat  fields  not  only  greatly 
reduces  the  yield  of  wheat  but  in  many  cases  the  grain  is 
much  reduced  in  quality  on  account  of  the  presence  of  the 
weed  seeds.  Three  of  these  are  of  primary  importance  in 
the  cotton-belt  and  deserve  special  mention.  These  are: 

(1)  Chess  or  cheat  (Bromus  secalinus) 

(2)  Cockle  (Lychnis  Githago) 

(3)  Field  garlic. (A Ilium  vineaLe). 

Chess  or  cheat  is  an  annual  grass,  growing  to  a  height  of 
two  to  three  feet.  The  stems  are  erect  and  smooth,  ter- 
minating in  a  loose,  open  panicle,  the  branches  of  which 
are  somewhat  drooping.  Its  common  occurrence  in  wheat 
fields  has  led  many  farmers  to  believe  that  wheat  some- 
times changes  into  chess  as  it  grows,  a  miracle  which  of 
course  never  happens.  Wheat  and  chess  are  not  closely 
related,  belonging  to  separate  tribes  in  the  grass  family. 
The  fact  that  chess  often  occurs  in  a  wheat  field  where 
clean  seed  was  sown  is  accounted  for  by  the  greafr  vitality 

334 


WHEAT  — WEEDS,  INSECTS,  DISEASES        335 

of  the  chess  seed.  These  seed  will  often  remain  buried  in 
the  soil  for  several  years  before  coming  up.  Its  great 
prolificacy  as  compared  with  wheat  is  also  responsible 
for  the  belief  that  wheat  turns  to  chess.  -As  chess  seed  is 
smaller  and  lighter  than  wheat,  it  can  be  removed  by 
carefully  screening  and  fanning  the  seed  wheat.  Also  if 
the  wheat  is  stirred  in  water  just  before  sowing  the  chess 
seed  will  rise  to  the  top  and  can  be  taken  off.  Hand-pulling 
and  burning  the  plants  in  the  field  is  often  resorted  to. 
Land  that  is  badly  infested  with  chess  should  be  planted 
to  intertilled  crops  until  the  chess  has  been  eradicated. 

Cockle  is  particularly  a  weed  of  grain  fields,  the  seed 
usually  being  sown  with  the  seed  grain.  It  grows  to  a 
height  varying  from  one  to  three  feet.  The  stem  is  slender 
and  erect  with  a  few  branches  near  the  top.  The  flowers 
are  reddish  purple  and  are  borne  on  long,  hairy  peduncles, 
The  calyx  is  ovoid,  quite  hairy  and  distinctly  ten-ribbed. 
Five  long,  pointed  lobes  extend  beyond  the  petals.  The 
seeds  are  borne  in  ovoid,  one-celled  capsules  averaging 
about  a  half-inch  in  length.  The  seeds  are  black  or  dark 
brown,  round  or  somewhat  triangular  in  shape  with  rows 
of  short  teeth  on  the  surface.  The  seed  of  cockle  is  poison- 
ous and  when  ground  with  wheat  renders  the  flour  un- 
wholesome. For  this  reason  the  presence  of  cockle  in  wheat 
will  materially  reduce  the  grade  of  the  wheat  on  the  mar- 
ket. The  chief  means  of  control  is  the  sowing  of  clean 
seed.  When  cockle  is  present  in  the  field  it  should  be  hand- 
pulled  before  the  seeds  are  mature.  -Badly  infested  fields 
should  not  be  sown  to  grain  but  planted  to  intertilled 
crops. 

Field  garlic  grows  from  one  to  three  feet  tall.  The 
plants  spring  from  "small,  ovoid,  membranous-coated 
bulbs."  The  flowers,  which  are  borne  in  umbels,  are  of 


336        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

pinkish  purple  color.  The  seed-head  consists  of  a  cluster 
of  small  bulbs  varying  in  number  from  twenty  to  a  hun- 
dred. These  bulblets  get  into  the  grain  and  greatly  reduce 
its  quality.  They  can  be  separated  at  the  mill  by  artifi- 
cially drying  the  wheat,  and  then  by  passing  it  through  the 
ordinary  cleaning  machinery. 

412.  Insect   enemies.  —  A   large   number   of  insects 
feed  on  and  injure  growing  wheat.    Among  the  most  im- 
portant insect  enemies  of  wheat  in  the  cotton-belt  are  the 
Hessian  fly  and  the  chinch-bug. 

413.  Hessian  fly  (Cecidomyia  destructor).  —  The  Hes- 
sian fly  is  a  small,  dark-colored,  mosquito-like  gnat  about 
one-eighth  inch  long.     There  are  four  stages  to  each  gener- 
ation as  follows:  (1)  egg,  (2)  maggot  or  larva,  (3)  pupa,  us- 
ually spoken  of  as  the  flaxseed  stage,  and  (4)  the  mature 
winged  insect.  The  eggs  are  usually  deposited  on  the  upper 
surface  of  the  young  leaf  or  in  case  of  the  spring  brood  they 
are  "sometimes  thrust  beneath  the  sheath  of  the  leaf  on  the 
lower  joints."    The  eggs  hatch  into  small  pinkish  larvae 
which  find  their  way  down  to  the  base  of  the  leaf-sheath. 
Many  plants  are  completely  killed  in  the  fall  when  the  larvae 
begin  to  devour  the  diminutive  culms  before  the  plants 
have  begun  to  stool.    In  the  spring  the  injuries  produced 
at  the  base  of  the  first  two  or  three  leaves  will  cause  many 
of  the  plants  to  fall  before  the  grain  is  ripe.    This  insect 
is  probably  the  most  injurious  insect  enemy  of  growing 
wheat  in  the  cotton-belt.    It  is  especially  prevalent  in  the 
Piedmont  sections  of  North  Carolina,   South  Carolina, 
Georgia,  and  Alabama.     The  principal  preventive  meas- 
ures are  as  follows:  (1)  Late  planting  of  winter  wheat. 
This  is  undoubtedly  the  most  practical  means  of  preventing 
damage  as  wheat  sown  after  the  first  frost  will  usually 
germinate  after  the  Hessian  fly  has  disappeared.     (2) 


WHEAT— WEEDS,  INSECTS,  DISEASES        337 

Burning  the  wheat  stubble.  It  has  been  noticed  that  the 
second  brood  often  develops  in  the  lower  joints  of  the 
wheat,  being  left  in  the  stubble  at  harvest,  mostly  in 
the  flaxseed  stage.  (3)  Plowing  under  stubble,  and  subse- 
quently rolling  it  to  prevent  any  maturing  adults  from 
escaping.  (4)  Rotation  of  crops. 

414.  Chinch-bugs  (Blissus  leucopterus)  and  weevils.  — 
The  chinch-bug  is  responsible  for  an  enormous  annual  loss 
to  the  wheat  crop.    This  pest  is  described  and  certain  reme- 
dial measures  are  outlined  in  the  chapter  on  insect  enemies 
of  corn.    As  the  chinch  bugs  hibernate  in  old  grass  and  rub- 
bish during  the  winter  months,  the  importance  of  burning 
over  all  waste  land  places  where  they  would  likely  find  pro- 
tection cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized.    Also  the  early 
planting  of  such  crops  as  millet,  or  spring  wheat  to  attract 
the  chinch-bugs  in  their  early  flight  is  recommended  by 
many.    After  these  trap-crops  become  infested  they  are 
plowed  under. 

Weevils  often  attack  wheat  in  the  shock,  stack  or  bin. 
In  the  two  former  cases  no  effective  treatment  can  be 
given.  The  wheat  should  be  thrashed  as  early  as  pos- 
sible, and  the  grain  placed  in  tightly  constructed,  closely 
covered  bins  and  fumigated  with  vapors  of  carbon- 
disulfide.  One  pound  of  carbon-disulfide  will  treat  30 
bushels  of  wheat  (see  chapter  on  Insect  Enemies  of  Corn, 
p.  270). 

415.  Fungous  diseases.  —  Four  fungous  diseases  cause 
serious  injury  to  wheat.    Of  these  four  diseases,  two  are 
rusts,  and  two  are  smuts.     One  form  of  rust,  Puccinia 
rubigo-vera,    occurs    principally    on    the    leaves    and    is 
known  as  the  early  orange  leaf-rust.    The  other  form, 
Puccinia  graminis,  affects  principally  the  stems  and  is 
known   as   the   late  stem-rust.    There   is  no  treatment 


338        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

for  these  rusts.  They  can  be  controlled  to  a  large  extent 
by  growing  rust-resistant  varieties.  For  a  description 
of  rust  see  the  chapter  on  Fungous  Diseases  of  Oats, 
p.  301. 

The  two  common  smuts  of  wheat  are  the  loose  smut 
(Ustilago  tritid)  and  the  covered  smut  (Tilletia  fcetens). 
The  latter  disease  is  often  called  bunt  or  stinking  smut. 
Both  of  these  diseases  are  preventable. 

416.  Loose  smut.  —  This  disease  turns  the  entire 
wheat  head,  including  the  chaff,  into  a  black  powdery  mass 
which  is  usually  blown  away  by  the  wind,  leaving  only 
the  bare  rachis  with  a  few  smut  spores  sticking  to  it.  The 
seed  treatment  for  this  disease  is  rather  difficult  on  account 
of  the  fact  that  the  smut  lives  over  inside  the  wheat  kernel. 
The  spores,  which  are  ripe  at  flowering  time,  find  lodgment 
in  the  flowers  of  unaffected  wheat  plants.  These  spores 
soon  germinate  and  send  a  little  filament  into  the  young 
kernel,  which  later  develops  into  a  young  smut  plant. 
This,  however,  does  not  interfere  with  the  development  of 
the  kernel,  and  the  disease  is  thus  carried  over  inside  the 
kernel  to  the  succeeding  crop,  where  it  again  becomes 
evident  at  flowering  time. 

This  disease  can  be  prevented  by  subjecting  the  seed  to 
what  is  known  as  the  modified  hot-water  treatment,  which 
is  as  follows:  Soak  the  seed  for  not  less  than  four  hours  or 
more  than  six  hours  in  cold  water.  Remove,  drain,  and  im- 
mediately immerse  the  seed  for  a  moment  in  water  kept  at 
a  temperature  of  about  120°  F.;  the  seed  is  then  immersed 
for  10  minutes  in  water  kept  at  a  constant  temperature  of 
129°  F.  Comparatively  small  quantities  of  seed  should  be 
treated  at  a  time  so  that  all  of  the  seed  may  become 
equally  heated.  Water  heated  above  129°F.  must  not  be 
used.  This  treatment  is  most  safely  used  in  connection 


WHEAT  —  WEEDS,  INSECTS,  DISEASES       339 

with  a  seed-plat  on  which  the  grain  to  be  used  in  seeding 
the  general  crop  is  grown.1 

417.  Covered  smut,  stinking  smut  or  bunt.  —  This 
smut  produces  its  spores  exclusively  within  the  kernel,  the 
chaff  being  unaffected.  When  the  diseased  kernels  are 
examined  they  are  found  to  be  completely  filled  with  a 
black,  dust-like  mass,  which  has  a  "peculiar  fetid  odor 
like  that  of  decaying  fish."  In  the  thrashing  and  other- 
wise  handling  the  grains  from  the  diseased  crop,  the 
smutted  kernels  are  broken  and  the  spores  find  lodgment 
on  the  sound  grains.  They  are  thus  carried  over  to  the 
next  crop.  As  the  spores  of  this  disease  do  not  mature 
until  the  grains  are  mature,  they  are  carried  over  only  on 
the  surface  of  the  grains  and  can  be  killed  by  any  method 
that  thoroughly  disinfects  the  outside  seed-coat.  The 
spores  of  the  loose  smut  mature  when  the  grain  is  in  bloom 
and  hence  get  into  the  flowers,  from  which  they  penetrate 
the  young  kernels.  The  important  seed  treatments  for 
covered  smut  are  the  following : 

Hot-water  treatment.  —  Soak  the  seed  for  10  to  15 
minutes  in  water  kept  at  a  temperature  of  from  132°  to 
133°  F.  The  seed  should  be  immediately  dried  following 
the  treatment. 

Formalin  treatment.  —  Thoroughly  moisten  the  seed 
with  a  solution  made  by  mixing  one  pound  of  formalin  to 
every  45  gallons  of  water.  The  grain  may  be  either 
sprinkled  or  soaked,  the  essential  point  being  the  thorough 
wetting  of  every  kernel.  If  sowing  is  done  immediately 
the  seed  should  be  dried  sufficiently  to  run  through  the 
drills.  Seed  that  is  to  be  kept  any  length  of  time  after 
being  treated  should  be  spread  out  on  a  clean  floor  and 
thoroughly  dried. 

1  Farmers  Bui.,  507,  p.  27. 


\ 

340        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

Copper-sulfate  treatment.  — ,  Immerse  the  seed  for  one 
to  two  minutes  in  a  solution  made  by  dissolving  one  pound 
of  copper  sulfate  in  four  gallons  of  water.  Remove  and 
dry  the  grain;  it  is  then  ready  to  sow. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 

RYE  (Secale  cereale) 

RYE  is  an  annual,  winter-growing,  cereal  grass  of  minor 
importance  in  the  cotton-belt.  The  relatively  small 
acreage  devoted  to  this  crop  in  the  south  is  utilized  pri- 
marily for  pasture  or  soiling  purposes.  On  poor  sandy 
soils  it  makes  an  excellent  green-manure.  When  rye  is 
allowed  to  mature  the  grain  is  used  as  a  human  food  or 
for  stock,  the  straw  being  largely  used  for  bedding  for 
domestic  animals.  Rye  straw  is  also  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  paper,  and  for  packing  fruit  trees  and  other  articles 
for  shipment. 

418.  Origin    and    nativity.  —  According    to    Hackel, 
the  original  species  of  rye  is  a  perennial  grass   (Secale 
montanum)  once  found  growing  wild  in  the  mountains 
of  the  Mediterranean  countries  from  Spain  and  Morocco 
to  Central  Asia.    This  wild  form  has  a  jointed  rachis  which 
breaks  apart  upon  ripening.    This  character  and  also  the 
perennial  habit  have  been  lost  under  cultivation.     The 
existence  of  rye  in  the  wild  state  at  the  present  time  is 
said  to  be  doubtful. 

419.  Description.  —  The  culms  of  rye  are  more  slender 
and  much  taller  than  those  of  wheat,  growing  sometimes 
to  a  height  of  six  to  seven  feet  on  rich  soils.    The  inflores- 
cence is  a  long,  slender,  distinctly  compressed,  profusely 
bearded  spike.     The  spikelets  are  two-flowered.     Each 
flower  produces  three  stamens.    As  the  two  flowers  in  a 
spikelet  develop  about  equally  the  rye  spike  is  distinctly 

341 


342        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


four-rowed.  The  flowering  glume  is  always  awned  and  the 
keel  of  the  glume  is  strongly  barbed.  The  organs  of 
reproduction  are  quite  similar  to  those  of  wheat,  except 
that  in  rye  the  anthers  are  larger.  The  rye  grain  is  slender, 
rather  dark  in  color,  with  a  somewhat  wrinkled  surface, 
and  has  a  rather  shallow  longitudinal  crease  on  the  side 
opposite  the  germ.  In  comparison  with  wheat,  the  rye 
spike  is  longer  and  more  flattened;  the  beards  are  much 
longer  and  less  spreading  and  are  loosely  arranged  in  two 
rows;  the  individual  grains  on  the  head  are  partially 
exposed ;  the  grains  are  longer,  more  slender,  more  pointed 
and  have  a  more  wrinkled  surface;  the  longitudinal  crease 
is  less  distinct  and  the  texture  of  the  grain  is  harder  and 
tougher,  requiring  more  power  to  grind  it. 

The  rye  grain,  on  germinating,  throws  out  a  whorl  of 
four  instead  of  three  temporary  roots.  This  characteristic 
is  thought  to  account  partially  for  the  greater  hardiness 
of  rye  as  compared  with  the  other  small  grains.  The 
young  rye  plant  has  a  distinctly  red  tinge  which  serves 
to  distinguish  it  from  wheat.  In  the  spring  the  plants 
take  on  a  grayish  green  color.  The  fall  growth  of  rye  is 
more  spreading  than  wheat. 

420.  Composition.  —  The  following  table  summarized 
from  Henry's  "Feeds  and  Feeding"  shows  the  composi- 
tion of  rye  grain  together  with  that  of  corn  and  wheat: 

TABLE  33.   PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION   OP  THE  GRAIN  OF  RYE, 
WHEAT  AND   CORN 


WATER 

PROTEIN 

t 
CRUDE 
FIBER 

NITRO- 
GEN- 
FREE 
EXTRACT 

ETHER 
EXTRACT 

ASH 

Rye.  . 
Wheat  
Dent  Corn.  

11.6 
10.5 
10.6 

10.6 
11.9 
10.3 

1.7 
1.8 
2.2 

72.5 
71.9 
70.4 

1.7 
2.1 
5.0 

1.9 
1.8 
1.5 

RYE  343 

Rye  contains  less  fat  than  corn  and  less  protein  than 
wheat.  Otherwise  the  three  grains  are  quite  similar  in 
composition.  The  composition  of  rye  straw  varies  very 
little  from  that  of  wheat  straw.  Rye  straw  is  much 
tougher  than  wheat  straw  and  is  of  little  value  for  feeding 
purposes. 

421.  Varieties.  —  Unlike  the  other  cereals,  rye  has 
developed  very  few  varieties.     Three  reasons  have  been 
given  for  this:  (1)  unlike  the  other  small  grains,  rye  cross- 
fertilizes  freely;  (2)  the  innate  tendency  of  rye  toward 
variation  is  less  than  in  most  other  cereals;  (3)  in  the 
United  States  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  improve  rye, 
either  by  selection  or  by  crossing.    Both  spring  and  winter 
forms  of  rye  have  been  developed,  the  latter  form  being* 
raised  almost  entirely  in  America.     Only  one  variety  is 
grown  throughout  the  cotton-belt.     It  is  known  simply 
as  "  Southern  Rye." 

422.  Climate.  —  While  rye  is  very  hardy  and  natu- 
rally a  plant  of  cold  climate,  it  does  not  seem  to  be  very 
much  influenced  by  hot  weather.     Rye  can  be  success- 
fully grown  in  latitudes  too  far  south  for  success  with 
wheat.    On  the  other  hand,  it  has  been  matured  in  Alaska 
as  a  winter  grain. 

423.  Soils  and  fertilizers.  —  While  rye  can  be  grown 
on  almost  any  soil  provided  it  is  well  drained,  it  makes  its 
best  growth  on  fertile  soils  containing  somewhat  less  clay 
than  our  best  wheat  soils.    In  fact  rye  is  admirably  adapted 
to  fertile  sandy  soils.     Rye  is  an  -  exceptionally  strong 
feeder  and  its  ability  to  grow  on  soils  of  low  productive- 
ness has  made  for  it  the  reputation  of  being  the  grain  of 
poverty.    This  reputation  has  tended  to  crowd  rye  off  of 
the  most  fertile  soils  and  is  primarily  responsible  for  the 
low  yields  of  this  crop  in  the  South.    It  is  nevertheless  true 


344        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

that  rye  will  respond  as  liberally  to  good  culture  and  ju- 
dicious fertilization  as  any  other  cereal.  The  principles 
discussed  in  the  fertilization  of  oats  and  wheat  are  equally 
applicable  to  rye. 

424.  Rotations.  —  Rye,  like  practically  all  other  field 
crops,  should  be  grown  in  a  well-planned  rotation.     In 
the  cotton-belt  rye  should  fill  the  place  in  the  rotation 
that  would  otherwise  be  taken  by  wheat  or  oats.    Rye 
is  especially  adapted  to  short-course  rotations  in  which 
case  it  is  largely  utilized  as  a  winter  cover-crop,  for  winter 
pasture  or  for  soiling  purposes.    On  poor  sandy  soils  rye 
often  occupies  a  position  in  the  rotation  between  two 
intertilled  crops  and  is  plowed  under  as  a  green-manure. 

425.  Seed.  —  As  a  rule  northern-grown  rye  should 
not  be  sown  in  the  cotton-belt.    The  plants  spread  out 
more  closely  on  the  ground  than  plants  from  southern- 
grown  seed  and  is  therefore  not  so  good  for  early  winter 
pasture.    Also  the  crop  from  northern-grown  seed  is  more 
subject  to  rust,  the  plants  are  smaller,  and  the  yield 
usually  less  than  from  "Southern  rye."     Home-grown 
seed  should  be  sown  whenever  circumstances  permit. 

426.  Culture.  —  Rye  is  most  often  sown  on  unplowed 
land  following  corn  or  some  other  intertilled  crop.     If 
sown  with  the  drill  the  land  is  well  harrowed  before  seed- 
ing.   One-horse  drills  are  often  used  and  the  rye  sown  in 
the  standing  corn,  the  drill  passing  between  the  rows. 
Broadcast  sowing  is  very  common,  particularly  when  the 
crop  is  intended  for  grazing.    For  soiling  purposes,  rye  is 
often  sown  in  drills  18  to  24  inches  apart.     The  sowing 
season  for  rye  is  longer  than  for  any  other  small  grain. 
For  early  soiling  the  crop  is  sometimes  sown  as  early  as 
September  1st.    On  poor  soils,  early  sowing  is  very  desir- 
able in  order  that  the  crop  may  get  well  established  before 


RYE  345 

winter  sets  in.  Rye  is  sometimes  sown  as  late  as  Decem- 
ber 1st  but  these  very  late  sowings  usually  produce  small 
yields.  The  usual  rates  of  seeding  rye  are  4  to  6  pecks  to 
an  acre  for  grain  and  6  to  8  pecks  for  pasture.  When  sown 
in  18-inch  drills,  one  bushel  to  the  acre  is  sufficient. 

427.  Harvesting  and  handling.  —  Ordinarily  the  meth- 
ods of  harvesting  rye  are  the  same  as  for  wheat  and 
oats.  When  rye  is  sown  on  very  fertile  soils  the  culms 
often  grow  to  such  length  as  to  cause  the  crop  to  lodge 
and  tangle.  Under  such  conditions  harvesting  is  attended 
with  special  difficulties.  The  binder  is  not  especially 
constructed  to  harvest  grain  that  is  seven  feet  tall  and 
unless  the  machine  has  a  very  long  table  and  the  straw 
is  especially  dry,  the  elevators  will  clog  and  the  tying  will . 
be  very  unsatisfactory.  Where  the  grain  is  badly  lodged, 
it  is  often  necessary  to  cut  on  only  one  or  two  sides  of  the 
field.  The  self-rake  reaper  is  sometimes  used  to  cut  very 
heavy  rye,  the  bundles  being  bound  and  shocked  by  hand. 
Four  or  five  men  are  necessary  to  bind  rye  by  hand  as  fast 
as  a  reaper  will  cut  it.  This  makes  this  method  of  har- 
vesting expensive,  but  special  conditions  may  make  it  nec- 
essary. The  precautions  to  be  taken  in  shocking,  thresh- 
ing, and  storing  rye  are  the  same  as  for  wheat  and  oats. 

When  properly  bundled,  good  rye  straw  has  a  high  value 
on  the  market.  ' '  If  straw  is  to  sell  well,  it  must  be  threshed 
without  breaking  or  tangling  and  then  rebound  into  bun- 
dles before  baling.  This  was  done  by  flailing  long  after 
that  implement  had  disappeared  for  other  uses.  It  is  now 
handled  by  a  special  type  of  threshing  machine  known  as 
a  'beater.'  This  has  a  cylinder  about  six  feet  in  length 
run  at  a  very  high  speed,  and  armed  with  only  slight 
corrugations  instead  of  the  usual  teeth.  The  bundles  are 
unbound  and  fed  through  this,  lying  parallel  to  the  axis 


346        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

of  the  cylinder  instead  of  endwise  as  is  the  usual  way. 
In  the  old  style  of  machines  the  straw  is  discharged  on 
a  table  in  shape  so  that  one  or  two  men  can  rebind  it  with 
bands  of  straw  caught  up  from  the  bundle.  In  more 
modern  machines,  the  binding  is  done  with  twine  by  a 
modified  form  of  the  ordinary  binder.  The  straw  is  baled 
in  the  old  type  of  open-topped  box-press,  being  tramped 
in  bundle  by  bundle  and  tramped  down.  This  is  pecu- 
liarly hard,  exhausting  work  but  it  seems  to  be  the  only 
acceptable  method  of  baling  rye-straw.  The  bales  weigh 
200  to  250  pounds."  l 

428.  Enemies.  —  Rye  is  injured  by  the  chinch-bug 
and  the  Hessian  fly.  Few  other  insects  do  serious  damage 
to  rye.  At  least  two  kinds  of  rust  —  the  black-stem  rust 
and  the  orange  rust  of  the  leaves,  —  attack  rye.  Smut 
sometimes  attacks  rye,  the  treatment  being  the  same  as 
for  oat  smut,  page  302. 

Ergot,  sometimes  known  as  spurred  rye,  is  probably 
the  greatest  enemy  of  rye,  although  this  disease  is  not 
especially  prevalent  in  the  cotton-belt.  Ergot  is  caused 
by  a  fungus  (Clavicepa  purpurea)  which  attacks  the  grains, 
causing  them  to  become  greatly  enlarged  on  account  of 
the  growth  of  the  fruiting  spores.  It  is  claimed  that  "  wide 
spread  disease  and  trouble"  have  been  produced  in  Euro- 
pean countries  as  a  result  of  using  ergot-infested  rye  for 
human  food.  From  a  physiological  standpoint  ergot  is 
rather  important,  it  being  used  as  a  medicine  in  obstetrics. 
It  is  said  that  when  fed  to  animals  ergot  sometimes  causes 
abortion  and  also  gangrene  of  the  extremities.  Rye 
containing  ergot  should  not  be  sown  and  land  which  has 
produced  the  diseased  rye  should  be  planted  to  other 
crops  for  two  or  three  years. 

1  Van  Wagenen  in  Bailey's  "  Cyclo.  of  Am.  Agr.,  Vol.  2,"  p.  561. 


CHAPTER  XXX 
BARLEY  '(Hordeum  sativum) 

BARLEY,  like  rye,  is  an  annual  cereal  grain  of  minor 
importance  in  the  cotton-belt.  It  belongs  to  the  same 
tribe  as  wheat  and  rye.  In  Europe  where  barley  is  ex- 
tensively grown,  the  grain  is  largely  utilized  in  the  pro- 
duction of  beer.  Much  of  the  grain  is  also  used  as  a  stock 
food,  particularly  in  the  form  of  barley  meal.  Malt 
spr9uts  and  brewers'  grains  are  two  important  by-products 
in  the  production  of  beverages  from  barley.  They  are 
used  as  food  for  domestic  animals.  Barley  straw  is  at 
least  equal  in  feeding  value  to  oat  straw.  The  chief  use 
of  barley  in  the  cotton-belt  is  for  pasturage  and  soiling. 
Barley  pasture  is  considered  to  be  more  palatable  than  that 
produced  by  other  small-grains. 

429.  Nativity.  —  Barley  is  thought  to  be  native  to 
western  Asia,  and  to  have  originated  from  the  wild  West 
Asian    Hordeum   spontaneum.      Like    wheat    its    culture 
antedates  written  history.    Down  to  the  close  of  the  fif- 
teenth century  barley  was  universally  used  as  >a  bread 
plant  throughout  the  civilized  countries  of  Europe,  Asia, 
and  Africa. 

430.  Description  (Figs.  57-59).  —  The  barley  plant, 
aside  from  the  spike,  resembles  wheat  in  appearance  and 
habit  of  growth.     Usually  the  culms  are  shorter  than  those 
of  wheat,  and  the  proportion  of  straw  to  grain  is  less 
than  in  wheat  or  oats.    The  leaves  of  barley  are  provided 

347 


348        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

with  larger  auricles  than  those  of  any  of  the  other  small 
grains. 

The  barley  spike  consists  of  a  long,  jointed  rachis  bearing 
three  spikelets  at  each  joint.     The  spikelets  are  one- 


FIG.  57.  —  Heads  of  Tennessee  Winter  barley, 
side  and  front  views;  also  detached  kernels 
with  the  awns  removed. 

flowered.  Each  flower  produces  three  stamens  and  a 
double,  plume-like  stigma  similar  to  wheat.  The  some- 
what awl-shaped  outer  glumes  are  about  three-eighths  inch 
long,  each  bearing  a  short,  flexible  beard  about  three- 
fourths  inch  long.  The  flowering  glume  is  distinctly  five- 
nerved  and  in  most  varieties  is  prolonged  into  a  stiff  beard 


BARLEY 


349 


six  to  eight  inches  long  with  barbed  edges.    At  maturity, 

the  flowering  glume  and  palea  usually  adhere  tightly  to  the 
kernel  and  are  removed  with  diffi- 
culty. Therefore,  the  barley  grain, 
like  the  oat  grain,  consists  of  the  ker- 
nel, the  palea  and  the  flowering  glume. 
These  two  latter  parts  are  called 
the  hull  or  husk.  The  barley  kernel 
resembles  very  closely  the  wheat  grain. 
The  legal  weight  of  a  bushel  of 
barley  grain  is 
48  pounds.  The 
actual  weight 
may  vary  from 
45  to  50  pounds. 
431.  Composition.  —  Barley  is 

recognized  as  a  nutritious  grain.   It 

is  more  carbonaceous  than  either 

wheat  or  oats.    Hulled   barley  is 

very    similar    in    composition    to 

wheat.     Ordinarily  barley  grain  is 

higher  than  wheat  in  crude  fiber  on 

account  of  the  hull.      Unlike  oats, 

the  hull  of  barley  is  so  tough  that 

it  is  necessary  to  grind  the  grain 

before  feeding  it  to  domestic  animals.    The  composition 

of  barley  and  its  by-products  as  given  in  Henry's  "  Feeds 

and  Feeding"  is  as  follows: 


FIG.  58.  —  A  grain  of 
2-rowed  barley;  A, 
dorsal  view;  B,  ven- 
tral view. 


FIG.  59.  —  High  grade  bar- 
ley  grains  with  the 
glumes  removed  to  show 
the  embryo  with  its 
collar-like  scutellum  (s). 
The  inner  envelopes 
have  been  removed  from 
the  upper  part  of  the 
grains. 


350 


FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


TABLE    34.     AVERAGE 


COMPOSITION   OF   BARLEY   AND    ITS    BY- 
PRODUCTS 


PERCEN 

PAGE  COM 

POSITION 

WATER 

ASH 

PROTEIN 

CRUDE 
FIBER 

NITRO- 
GEN- 
FREE 

ETHER 
EXTRACT 

EXTRACT 

Barley  grain  

10.9 

2.4 

12.4 

2.7 

69.8 

1.8 

Barley  meal  

11.9 

2.6 

10.5 

6.5 

66.3 

2.2 

Barley  screenings  

12.2 

3.6 

12.3 

7.3 

61.8 

2.8 

Brewers'  grain  (wet)   .  . 
Brewers'  grain  (dry)   .  . 

75.7 
8.2 

1.0 
3.6 

5.4 
19.9 

3.8 
11.0 

12.5 
51.7 

1.6 
5»6 

Malt-sprouts  

10.2 

5.7 

23.2 

10.7 

48.5 

1.7 

Barley  straw  

8.3 

a.  8 

3.7 

42.0 

39.5 

2.7 

432.  Types  of  barley.  —  Most  authorities  recognize 
two  well-marked  types  of  barley.  These  are:  (1)  six-rowed 
barley  (Hordeum  sativum  hexastichon)  and  (2)  two-rowed 
barley  (H.  sativum  distichori).  In  the  six-rowed  type,  each 
of  the  three  spikelets  borne  at  a  single  joint  on  the  rachis 
produces  one  grain.  As  each  joint  produces  three  grains 
and  as  these  grains  are  arranged  alternately  at  the  various 
joints  of  the  rachis,  they  are  produced  in  six  distinct  rows. 
Sometimes  a  four-rowed  barley  is  produced  in  that  the 
lateral  or  outside  grains  of  the  alternate  sets  overlap  so  as 
to  form  one  instead  of  two  rows  on  each  side.  Six-rowed 
barley  may  be  four-rowed  toward  the  tip  of  the  spike.  In 
the  two-rowed  type  the  lateral  grains  fail  to  develop,  in 
which  case  the  spike  is  composed  of  two  rather  than  six 
rows  of  grains.  In  this  type  the  joints  of  the  rachis  are 
farther  apart;  hence  the  spike  is  longer  and  less  compact 
than  in  the  six-rowed  type.  The  two-rowed  barley  is  a 
spring  variety  and  is  the  kind  that  is  largely  grown  in 
Europe  for  the  production  of  malt,  the  four-  or  six-rowed 
barleys  being  used  as  food  for  domestic  animals. 

There  is  a  hull-less  or  naked  barley  (H.  nudum)  which 
is  also  beardless.  This  type  is  little  grown  as  it  is  a  poor 


BARLEY  351 

yielder.  Among  the  types  which  retain  the  hull,  there  are 
a  few  beardless  varieties.  They  mature  much  earlier  than 
the  bearded  sorts,  but  yield  poorly  and  are  extremely  ten- 
der, necessitating  sowing  after  Christmas,  even  in  the 
central  part  of  the  Gulf  states. 

433.  Climate.  —  Barley  is  successfully  cultivated  in 
a  very  wide  range  of  climate.     While  it  is  successfully 
produced  in  cold  climates  and  regions  of  abundant  rains 
it  is  best  adapted  to  a  warm,  dry  climate.     It  usually 
matures  in  less  time  than  oats  or  spring  wheat. 

434.  Soil,  fertilizers,  and  rotation.  —  The  root-growth 
of  barley  is  less  abundant  than  that  of  wheat,  oats,  or  rye. 
It  is  therefore  necessary  to  sow  barley  on  land  that  is  in  a 
high  state  of  fertility.    A  rich  clay  loam  usually  gives  best 
results.     The   limestone   soils,   when   well   drained   give 
excellent  results  with  barley.    The  character  of  fertiliza- 
tion required  will  be  governed  largely  by  the  fertility 
needs   of   the   particular   soil   in   question.     Well-rotted 
barnyard  manure  usually  gives   excellent  results.     The 
need    for    commercial    fertilizers    is    the    same    as    for 
wheat. 

Barley  should  never  be  grown  continuously  on  the  same 
land.  In  the  cotton-belt  it  most  often  follows  corn.  More 
care  should  be  given  to  the  preparation  of  the  seed-bed 
than  for  oats  or  rye.  In  the  cotton-belt  barley  will  easily 
occupy  a  position  in  the  rotation  similar  to  wheat. 

435.  Sowing.  —  In  the  cotton-belt  the  greater  part 
of  the  barley  crop  is  sown  in  October  and  November.    In 
the  central  part  of  the  Gulf  states  it  may  be  sown  at  any 
date  between  September  1st  and  December  1st.     When 
sown  broadcast  for  pasture,  2J/2  bushels  of  seed  to  the  acre 
are  advisable.     For  the  production  of  grain,   lJ/£  to  2 
bushels  to  the  acre  are  usually  sown.    These  amounts  are 


352        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

also  required  when  the  crop  is  sown  in  drills  for  soiling 
purposes. 
436.  Harvesting.  —  Barley  should  be  harvested  before 


FIG.  60.  —  Loose  smut  of  barley,  showing  five 
smutted  heads  at  various  stages  of  development 
and  for  comparison  a  sound  barley  head. 


it  is  entirely  ripe,  if  discoloration  from  the  rain  and  dews 
is  to  be  avoided.  At  this  stage  the  beards  will  be  less 
annoying  than  when  the  crop  is  dead  ripe.  If  the  bundles 
are  promptly  shocked  and  capped,  ripening  will  proceed 
after  harvest,  and  an  excellent  quality  of  grain  can  be 


BARLEY  353 

secured.  Barley  is  usually  harvested  with  the  self- 
binder. 

437.  Enemies.  —  Barley  probably  suffers  more  from 
the  attacks  of  chinch  bugs  than  any  other  cereal.  This 
may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  chinch-bugs  are  especially 
fond  of  this  crop.  It  is  thought  by  some  that  barley  is  less 
able  to  resist  their  attacks  than  the  other  cereals.  The 
Hessian  fly  also  attacks  barley. 

Barley  is  affected  by  black  stem-rust  and  the  orange 
leaf-rust.  There  are  also  two  common  smuts  of  barley. 
These  are  the  covered  smut  and  the  loose  smut  (Fig.  60). 
The  treatment  for  the  covered  smut  is  the  same  as  for 
covered  or  stinking  smut  of  wheat,  page  339.  The  loose 
smut  of  barley  cannot  be  prevented  by  the  use  of  formalin. 
It  can  be  controlled  by  the  modified  hot-water  treatment,  as 
given  for  loose  smut  of  wheat,  page  338,  with  the  exception 
that  barley  is  treated  for  13  minutes  at  a  temperature  of 
126°  F.  instead  of  10  minutes  at  a  temperature  of  129°  F. 
as  for  wheat. 


CHAPTER  XXXI 
RICE  (Oryza  saliva) 

RICE  is  an  annual  grass  belonging  to  the  tribe  Oryzese. 
To  this  tribe  also  belong  the  two  species  of  wild  rice, 
Zizania  aquatica  and  Zizania  miliacea.  The  former 
grows  somewhat  extensively  in  certain  marshy  regions  of 
northestern  Asia,  and  under  similar  conditions  in  North 
America,  particularly  in  the  region  of  the  Great  Lakes. 
Its  seed  was  once  used  extensively  as  a  food  by  the  Indians 
but  its  tendency  to  shatter  upon  ripening  has  prevented 
its  general  cultivation.  The  latter  species  occurs  commonly 
in  the  bayous  of  Louisiana  where  it  is  sometimes  used  as 
a  hay  plant.  No  use  has  been  made  of  its  seed.  The 
genus  Oryza  to  which  cultivated  rice  belongs  also  con- 
tains a  number  of  species  of  wild  rice  that  are  rather 
generally  distributed  throughout  the  tropics  of  both  hemi- 
spheres. 

Rice  is  a  plant  of  great  antiquity,  having  been  known 
to  the  Chinese  2800  years  B.  C.  and  used  by  them  in  their 
annual  ceremony  of  sowing  five  kinds  of  seed.  Rice  was 
introduced  into  Virginia  in  1647.  This  introduction  was 
of  little  importance.  In  1694  the  Governor  of  South  Caro- 
lina received  a  small  parcel  of  rough  rice  from  the  captain 
of  a  trading  vessel  bound  for  Liverpool  from  Madagascar. 
The  vessel  had  been  blown  out  of  her  course,  and  had  put 
into  Charleston  for  repairs.  This  small  parcel  of  seed 

354 


RICE  355 

marks  the  beginning  of  the  rice  industry  in  this  coun- 
try. 

438.  Structure.  —  Rice  is  grown  for  its  grain,  which 
is  used  for  human  food.    The  plants  vary  in  height  from 
two  to  five  feet,  depending  upon  soil  and  cultural  condi- 
tions.    The  grain  is  borne  on  short  branches  radiating 
from  the  upper  part  of  the  culm  and  forming  a  panicle 
somewhat  similar  to  oats,  although  more  compact  on  ac- 
count of  the  short  length  of  the  pedicels  bearing  the  spike- 
lets.     The  spikelets  of  rice  are  one-flowered  and,  unlike 
the  other  cereals,  each  flower  has  six  stamens  instead  of 
three.    The  outer  glumes  are  very  small,  consisting  only 
of  two  small  scales.    The  flowing  glume  envelops  the  ker- 
nel and  is  frequently  awned.    The  rice  grain,  as  threshed, 
consists  of  the  kernel  or  caryopsis  inclosed  in  the  flowering 
glume  and  palea.    These  outer  coverings  constitute  the 
hull.     The  rice  kernel  has  a  fluted  appearance  due  to  four 
depressions  which  traverse  the  surface  longitudinally.   The 
endosperm  is  quite  hard  and  translucent,  and  comprises 
the  biggest  portion  of  the  kernel.     The  embryo,  which 
is  not.  imbedded  in  the  kernel,  is  rubbed  off  in  the  process 
of  milling. 

The  root-system  of  rice  is  quite  fibrous.  Like  the  other 
small  grains,  rice  tillers  freely  under  favorable  conditions 
sending  up  several  culms  from  one  grain. 

439.  Composition.  —  The  rice  grain  contains  a  high 
percentage  of  starch  and  a  low  percentage  of  ash,  protein, 
crude  fiber,  and  fat.     The  composition  of  rice  and  its 
products,  as  determined  by  McDonnell l  and  reported 
by  Duggar,2  is  shown  on  next  page: 


1  S.  C.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  59. 

2  Duggar,  J.  F.,  "  Southern  Field  Crops,"  p.  219. 


356 


FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


TABLE  35.  COMPOSITION  OF  RICE  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS 


1 

NITRO- 

WATER 
Per  Cent 

ASH 
Per  Cent 

PROTEIN 
Per  Cent 

CRUDE 
FIBER 
Per  Cent 

GEN 

FREE 

EXTRACT 

FAT 
Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Prepared  rice  

12.79 

0.40 

7.38 

0.33 

78.84 

0.24 

Rice  polish  

9.73 

5.50 

12.73 

2.20 

59.40 

10.44 

Rice  bran  

10.05 

11.17 

11.35 

16.10 

39.76 

11.57 

Rice  hulls 

11  11 

14  95 

1  88 

39  11 

33  62 

0  33 

Rough  rice  

5.73 

5.89 

7.75 

8.25 

70.13 

2.31 

Rice  straw  

6.76 

12.88 

3.00 

38.98 

42.11 

1.27 

440.  Varieties.  —  Owing  to  the  great  antiquity  of 
rice  and  the  varied  conditions  of  soil,  climate  and  culture 
under  which  it  has  been  produced,  many  varieties  have 
come  into  existence.  Relatively  few  of  these,  however, 
are  of  great  agricultural  importance. 

The  principal  varieties  of  rice  grown  in  the  United 
States  are  the  famous  Carolina  Gold  Seed,  the  Honduras, 
the  Japan,  and  the  Blue  Rose.  "White"  rice,  the  original 
variety  introduced  into  this  country  in  1694,  was  gener- 
ally cultivated  in  the  South  Atlantic  states  during  the 
early  period  of  the  rice  industry  in  this  country  but  in 
recent  years  has  been  superseded  by  the  Gold  Seed. 

Carolina  Gold  Seed  rice,  so  called  from  the  golden- 
yellow  color  of  its  husk  when  ripe,  ranks  among  the  best 
rices  of  the  world  as  regards  yield,  and  size  and  richness 
of  kernel.  In  reality  there  are  two  varieties  of  Gold  Seed 
rice,  differing  only  in  size  of  kernel. 

The  Honduras  (Fig.  61)  and  Japan  varieties  are  grown 
largely  in  Louisiana,  Texas,  and  Arkansas.  Honduras  rice 
grows  taller  than  the  Japan  and  produces  a  stiffer  culm 
which  renders  it  less  liable  to  lodge.  The  kernels  are  large 
and  polish  with  a  desirable  pearly  luster,  for  which  reason 
it  usually  commands  a  higher  price  than  the  Japan.  On 
the  other  hand,  Japan  rice  usually  yields  more  than  the 


RICE  357 

Honduras  and  the  grain,  being  tougher,  suffers  a  smaller 
percentage  of  loss  from  broken  grains  in  milling.  The 
kernels  of  Japan  rice  are  short  and  thick.  As  the  grain 


FIG.  61.  —  Showing  typical  heads  of  five  varieties  of 
rice  together  with  the  unhulled  and  hulled  grains 
(a),  and  hulled  kernels  (&).  1,  Blue  Rose;  2,  Hon- 
duras; 3,  Waterbuna  (Japan);  4,  Shinriki  (Japan); 
5,  Red  Rice. 

has  a  very  thin  hull  it  yields  a  small  percentage  of  bran 
and  polish. 

Blue  Rose  rice  (Fig.  62)  is  the  most  important  variety 
now  grown  in  southeast  Texas  and  southwest  Lousiana.  It 
was  originated  by  a  planter  by  the  name  of  Wright,  of 
Crowley,  Louisiana,  and  has  come  into  use  only  within  the 
last  five  or  six  years.  It  is  valued  especially  as  a  high- 
yielding  variety  and  possesses  excellent  milling  qualities, 
milling  a  uniformly  high  percentage  of  finished  rice.  It 


358        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

also  has  the  advantage  of  not  shattering  badly  at  the 
time  of  harvest. 

441.  Upland  rice.  —  For  maximum  yields  and  best 
quality,  rice  must  be  grown  on  low,  level  lands  that  permit 


FIG.  62.  —  Blue  Rose  rice. 

of  irrigation.  However,  there  are  varieties  that  can  be 
grown  on  rich  uplands  without  irrigation.  Upland  rice 
can  be  grown  with  reasonable  success  over  a  rather  large 
area  of  the  cotton-belt  east  of  the  Mississippi  River. 
However,  the  yields  are  usually  low  and  uncertain  and 


RICE  359 

the  quality  inferior  to  that  of  irrigated  rice.  Upland 
rice  is  usually  planted  in  rather  close  drills  and  culti- 
vated. These  so-called  upland  varieties  succeed  better 
when  irrigated. 

442.  Climatic  adaptations.  —  Rice  is  a  tropical  plant 
but  thrives  also  in  semi-tropical  regions.    It  is  more  re- 
sistant to  extreme  heat  than  wheat,  being  quite  similar 
to  cotton  in  its  climate  range.     Roughly  speaking,  the 
world's  rice  crop  is  produced  within  the  area  lying  between 
latitude  40  degrees  north  and  south  of  the  equator  in  both 
hemispheres.    However,  its  best  development  is  possible 
only  within  those  regions  having  a  very  moist,  insular 
climate.    The  bulk  of  the  world's  rice  crop  is  produced 
throughout  the  warmer  parts  of  China,  Japan,  India,  and 
the  Philippine  Islands  in  Asia,  Italy  and  Spain  in  Europe, 
the  southern  United  States  in  North  America,  Honduras 
in  Central  America,  and  Brazil,  British  Guiana  and  Peru 
in  South  America. 

443.  Irrigation.  —  The   most   economical  production 
of  high-grade  rice  is  possible  only  in  regions  where  the  crop 
can  be  flooded  with  three  to  six  inches  of  water  during 
most  of  the  growing  period.    Lands  selected  for  irrigated 
rice  must,  therefore,  have  slight,  if  any  slope,  and  must 
be  retentive  of  water.    The  fields  must  be  laid  off  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  entire  surface  of  each  contour  or"  sub- 
field  will  be  at  practically  the  same  level,  otherwise  the 
irrigation  water  will  vary  in  depth  in  different  parts  of 
the  field,  and  the  crop  will  ripen  ununiformly.     Where 
the  slope  of  the  land  is  considerable  only  small  contours 
are  possible.     In  the  level  prairie  sections  each  contour 
often  comprises  as  much  as  20  or  30  acres. 

Irrigation  water  is  supplied  from  rivers,  bayous,  or  wells. 
Usually  large  canals  are  constructed  from  the  water  source 


360        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

and  extend  along  one  side  of  the  area  to  be  irrigated,  or 
in  some  cases  completely  encircle  it.  On  each  side  of  the 
main  canal,  and  running  parallel  with  it,  banks  or  levees 
are  thrown  up  which  aid  in  holding  the  water.  The  water 
is  either  pumped  or  siphoned  into  these  main  canals  from 
which  it  is  distributed,  through  headgates  or  through  boxes 
put  through  the  levee  known  as  "  trunks,"  to  lateral 
ditches  or  small  canals.  This  system  of  laterals  conveys 
the  water  to  the  highest  parts  of  the  various  fields.  In 
order  that  the  water  may  be  distributed  uniformly  over 
the  entire  area,  the  fields  are  subdivided  into  smaller 
areas. 

In  the  South  Atlantic  states,  the  fields  are  subdivided 
by  a  system  of  small  ditches  or  canals,  a  small  levee  being 
thrown  up  on  the  borders  of  each.  These  ditches  are  usu- 
ally parallel,  about  50  feet  apart,  and  are  used  for  convey- 
ing the  water  both  to  and  from  the  land. 

In  the  Gulf  states,  low  levees  are  thrown  up  on  the  con- 
tour lines,  usually  with  a  plow,  so  as  to  divide  the  field 
into  subareas  of  uniform  level.  The  water  is  turned 
into  the  highest  subarea  first,  from  which  it  flows  to  the 
subarea  having  the  next  highest  level  and  so  on  until 
the  entire  area  has  been  flooded. 

Regardless  of  the  system  of  irrigation  followed,  it  is  of 
paramount  importance  that  the  levees  bordering  rivers 
and  main  canals  be  sufficiently  high  to  protect  the  rice 
against  freshets  or  salt  water.  The  injury  to  rice  from 
freshets  is  due  not  alone  to  the  volume  of  water,  but  also 
to  its  low  temperature.  Salt  water  from  the  sea  often 
ascends  rivers  to  a  considerable  distance,  especially  in  peri- 
ods of  continued  drought.  The  admittance  of  this  salt 
water  to  rice  fields  will  destroy  the  crop,  although  slightly 
brackish  water  is  not  destructive. 


RICE  361 


RICE   PRODUCTION   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES 

The  world's  crop  of  cleaned  rice  amounts  to  approxi- 
mately one  hundred  and  fifty  billion  pounds  annually. 
Of  this  amount  the  United  States  produces  approximately 
seven  hundred  million  pounds. 

444.  Rice-growing  sections.  —  Previous  to  1880  the 
bulk  of  the  rice  crop  in  the  United  States  was  produced 
in  South  Carolina  and  Georgia.  At  present  Louisiana, 
Texas,  and  Arkansas  produce  more  than  three-fourths 
of  the  crop  in  this  country.  This  shift  in  rice  production 
has  been  due  to  the  opening  up,  within  recent  years,  of 
large  areas  of  level  prairie  land  in  southwestern  Louisiana, 
southeastern  Texas,  and  southeastern  Arkansas,  together 
with  the  development  of  a  system  of  irrigation  and  culture 
that  greatly  reduces  the  cost  of  production  by  admitting 
the  use  of  improved  seeding  and  harvesting  machinery. 

In  addition  to  these  important  areas,  rice  is  also  pro- 
duced in  eastern  Louisiana  on  low  alluvial  lands  once  used 
as  sugar  plantations,  and  on  soils  of  the  same  character 
farther  up  the  Mississippi.  In  southern  Louisiana  and 
particularly  in  the  eastern  sections  of  Georgia  and  South 
Carolina  considerable  quantities  of  rice  are  still  produced 
on  what  is  termed  the  "tidal  deltas."  Lands  of  this  char- 
acter that  are  used  for  rice  growing  are  usually  located  on 
some  stream,  and  have  an  elevation  such  that  they  can  be 
flooded  from  the  stream 'at  high  tide  and  drained  into  it  at 
low  tide.  Many  inland  marshes  occurring  in  the  more 
elevated  regions  of  South  Carolina  and  Georgia,  and  so 
situated  that  they  can  be  irrigated  from  some  convenient 
stream,  are  used  for  growing  rice. 

The  areas  adapted  to  upland  rice  are  very  extensive  in- 
asmuch as  this  crop  can  usually  be  grown  on  any  soil 


362        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

adapted  to  wheat  or  cotton  provided  the  climate  is  favor- 
able. 

445.  Drainage.  —  The  fact  that  rice  is  a  water  plant 
has  caused  most  rice-growers  to  underestimate  the  value 
of  good  drainage  as  an  aid  in  producing  both  maximum 
yields  and  a  superior  quality  of  grain.     Experience  has 
amply  demonstrated  that  good  drainage  is  equally  as 
essential  for  rice  as  for  wheat  and  most  other  field  crops. 
The  chief  benefits  which  the  rice-grower  derives  from  good 
drainage  are:  (1)  It  permits  more  thorough  preparation  of 
the  seed-bed;  (2)  earlier  planting  is  possible;  (3)  a  better 
stand  is  secured;  (4)  the  rapid  accumulation  of  alkali  is 
prevented;  (5)  it  permits  the  rapid  removal  of  the  flood 
waters  before  harvest  and  thereby  allows  the  soil  to  be- 
come sufficiently  firm  to  permit  the  use  of  improved 
machinery  in  the  harvesting  of  the  crop;  (6)  a  more  uni- 
form ripening  is  secured,  and  consequently  a  better  quality 
of  grain  is  produced. 

Drainage  is  most  easily  effected  by  means  of  open 
ditches.  Where  this  system  of  drainage  is  employed  the 
main  ditches  should  be  at  least  three  feet  deep.  Tile 
drainage,  while  often  practicable,  is  usually  not  resorted 
to  because  of  the  expense  and  because  the  sediment  carried 
by  the  water  during  freshet  seasons  often  clogs  the  drains. 

446.  Soils,  rotations  and  fertilizers.  —  The  best  rice 
soils  are  silty  loams  underlain  by  a  semi-impervious  sub- 
soil.   Very  loose-structured  soils  are  not  suitable  for  rice 
as  they  will  not  retain  the  irrigation  water.    The  fertile 
drift  prairie  soils  of  Louisiana  and  Texas  are  examples  of 
excellent  rice  soils.    They  are  composed  of  a  loamy  top 
soil  underlain  by  a  rather  impervious  clay  which  makes 
them  quite  retentive  of  water. 

Rice  is  seldom  grown  in  a  rotation  with  other  crops.    The 


RICE  363 

principal  reason  for  this  is  that  it  would  reduce  the  area  of 
rice  grown.  Nevertheless  continuous  rice-culture  leads 
ultimately  to  unprofitable  yields.  Farmers  who  have  long 
grown  rice  continuously  on  the  same  land  are  now  being 
forced  to  adopt  a  rotation  to  free  the  land  of  noxious  weeds 
and  to  add  some  vegetable  matter  for  the  rejuvenation  of 
the  soil.  An  excellent  practice  is  to  grow,  once  every  three 
years,  an  intertilled  crop  like  corn  together  with  cowpeas 
seeded  at  the  last  cultivation. 

While  many  kinds  of  fertilizing  materials  are  employed 
for  rice  in  oriental  countries,  the  land  is  seldom  fertilized 
for  this  crop  in  the  United  States.  This  is  partially  due  to 
the  common  impression  that  the  flooding  of  the  rice  fields 
restores  to  the  soil  as  much  plant-food  as  is  removed  by 
the  crop.  If  the  irrigation  water  carries  a  large  amount 
of  sediment  this  is  probably  true,  but  it  is  not  the  case 
where  flooding  is  done  with  pure  water.  Usually  the 
irrigation  water  carries  a  large  quantity  of  potash  and  a 
partial  supply  of  nitrogen,  but  very  little  phosphoric  acid. 
That  the  yield  of  rice  may  be  materially  increased  by  the 
use  of  a  phosphate  fertilizer,  and  the  proper  hardening  of 
the  grain  aided  by  the  use  of  a  potash  fertilizer,  are  in- 
dicated by  experiments  in  Louisiana. 

While  little  is  known  as  to  the  fertilizer  requirements  of 
rice,  certainly  in  most  cases,  the  permanent  productiveness 
of  rice  lands  can  be  maintained  only  when  at  least  a  part  of 
the  fertility  removed  by  the  crop  is  replaced.  The  best 
method  of  doing  this  must  be  determined  by  each  planter 
according  to  his  conditions. 

447.  Preparation  of  the  seed-bed.  —  Soil  conditions, 
particularly  as  regards  moisture,  are  so  variable  in  the 
rice-belt  that  no  one  method  of  preparation  is  applicable 
to  all  cases.  In  wet  culture  the  land  is  usually  plowed  in 


364        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

the  spring  a  short  while  before  planting.  In  dry  culture 
the  land  is  best  plowed  in  the  fall  or  winter. 

The  depth  of  plowing  must  vary  with  conditions.  If 
good  drainage  facilities  have  been  provided,  deep  plowing 
is  especially  recommended.  This  should  be  immediately 
followed  by  the  harrow.  After  this  treatment,  the  land, 
especially  if  it  is  porous,  should  be  gone  over  with  a  heavy 
roller.  It  should  be  remembered  that  alkali  often  accu- 
mulates in  the  subsoil  just  below  the  plowline  and  in  such 
cases  a  relatively  small  percentage  of  the  subsoil  should  be 
plowed  up  each  year  until  the  desired  depth  has  been 
reached.  Relatively  shallow  plowing  is  preferable  on 
poorly  drained,  persistently  wet  soils;  otherwise  the  wheels 
of  the  binder  will  sink  so  deeply  into  the  soil  at  harvest 
time  as  to  render  the  use  of  this  implement  impossible. 

Maximum  yields  of  rice  can  be  secured  only  when  the 
soil  is  in  such  a  condition  as  will  permit  the  preparation 
of  a  relatively  deep,  thoroughly  pulverized,  level  seed-bed. 

448.  Planting.  —  Rice  planting  begins  about  March 
15th  in  Louisiana  and  Texas,  and  about  April  1st  in  South 
Carolina  and  Georgia.  The  planting  season  continues 
until  about  June  1st.  Usually  for  best  results  the  crop 
should  be  planted  by  April  20th.  The  Arkansas  Station 
recommends  that  the  crop  in  that  state  be  sown  as  early 
as  possible  after  danger  of  frost  is  over  and  the  ground 
is  warm  enough  to  germinate  the  seed. 

Seeding  should  be 'done  with  a  grain  drill  when  possible. 
Broadcast  sowing,  while  still  common  in  many  commu- 
nities, should  be  discontinued,  as  by  this  method  a  uniform 
distribution  or  germination  of  the  seed  is  almost  impos- 
sible. Uniform  germination  is  especially  important  from 
the  standpoint  of  securing  uniform  ripening.  One  to  two 
bushels  of  seed  is  the  quantity  sown  to  the  acre. 


RICE  365 

The  method  of  planting  rice  in  the  South  Atlantic 
states  differs  somewhat  from  that  employed  in  the  Gulf 
states.  In  discussing  rice  planting  in  South  Carolina 
Knapp  says,  "  Just  prior  to  seeding  the  land  is  thoroughly 
harrowed,  all  clods  pulverized,  and  the  surface  smoothed. 
Trenches  12  inches  apart  and  2  to  3  inches  deep  are  made 
with  4-inch  trenching  hoes  at  right  angles  to  the  drains, 
and  the  seed  is  dropped  in  these.  This  is  usually  covered, 
but  occasionally  a  planter,  to  save  labor,  stirs  the  seed 
in  clayed  water,  enough  clay  adhering  to  the  kernels 
to  prevent  their  floating  away  when  the  water  is  ad- 
mitted." 

449.  Irrigation  practice.  —  The  practices  employed 
in  the  flooding  of  rice  vary  in  different  sections  of  the  rice- 
belt.  Irrigation  water  should  not  be  applied  to  the  crop 
until  the  plants  are  6  to  8  inches  high  except  where  the 
application  of  water  is  necessary  to  germinate 'the  seed. 
If  a  good  stand  has  been  secured  and  the  crop  is  making 
a  vigorous  growth,  thus  shading  the  land  completely, 
the  water  need  not  stand  more  than  two  inches  deep. 
In  case  of  a  thin  stand  the  water  should  stand  from  4  to 
6  inches  deep.  To  avoid  stagnation  and  the  growth  of 
certain  injurious  plants,  the  water  should  be  constantly 
renewed  by  permitting  a  continuous  inflow  into  the  high 
part  of  the  field  and  a  continuous  outflow  from  the  lowest 
part. 

In  Louisiana  and  Texas,  water  for  irrigating  rice  is  sup- 
plied by  rivers,  bayous,  or  deep  wells  from  which  it  is 
pumped  into  the  main  canals.  In  lifting  this  water  the 
centrifugal  type  of  pump  has  been  found  most  satisfac- 
tory. The  capacity  of  centrifugal  pumps  can  be  calculated 
from  the  following  data  by  Bond  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture: 


366        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


TABLE  36.   DUTY   OF   CENTRIFUGAL   PUMP    FpR    IRRIGATING. 
LIFTING  WATER  LESS  THAN  35  FEET 


DIAMETER  OF 

DISCHARGE 

POWER  FOR 

EVERY 

QUANTITY 
PUMPED 

AREA  IRRI- 

DISCHARGE 

PER 

MINUTE 

FOOT  OF 
LIFT 

PER  DAY 

(Ft.  per 

GATED  IN 
70  DAYS 

(Inches) 

(Gallons) 

(Horse  p'r) 

acre) 

(Acres) 

4  

433 

.27 

1.87 

60 

6 

1025 

56 

4  53 

158 

8 

1900 

98 

8  39 

294 

10  

3000 

1  54 

13  25 

464 

12 

4275 

2  06 

18  89 

661 

15 

7000 

3  34 

30  93 

1083 

18  

10000 

4.62 

44.19 

1547 

20 

13000 

5  68 

57  45 

2011 

When  the  plants  have  reached  a  height  of  6  to  8  inches 
the  field  is  flooded  with  water  to  a  depth  of  2  to  6  inches. 
The  field  is  kept  flooded  until  a  short  while  before  harvest, 
when  the  water  is  withdrawn  and  the  soil  allowed  to  be- 
come firm  before  the  crop  is  cut. 

In  South  Carolina  the  usual  practice  is  to  let  the  water 
on  the  land  for  four  or  five  days  immediately  after  planting, 
to  germinate  the  seed.  This  is  spoken  of  as  the  "  sprout 
water."  When  the  grain  is  well  sprouted  the  water  is  with- 
drawn. As  soon  as  the  rice  has  reached  the  two-leaf  stage 
the  "stretch  water"  is  put  on  to  a  depth  of  10  or  12  inches 
at  first,  afterwards  being  drawn  down  to  about  6  inches 
where  it  is  held  for  three  or  four  weeks.  The  land  is  then 
drained  and  the  crop  hoed.  No  more  water  is  admitted 
until  the  plants  begin  to  joint,  at  which  time  they  are 
again  hoed,  and  the  water  turned  on  to  remain  until  about 
eight  days  before  harvest  when  it  is  withdrawn.  This  last 
irrigation  is  known  as  the  "harvest  water  "  or  "  lay  by  flow." 


RICE  367 

450.  Harvesting.  —  Rice  should  be  harvested   when 
the  grain  is  in  the  stiff  dough  stage,  at  which  time  the 
straw  is  beginning  to  turn  yellow.    In  the  prairie  districts 
of  Louisiana,  Texas,  and  Arkansas  the  crop  is  commonly 
harvested  with  the  ordinary  grain  binder.    The  bundles 
should  be  carefully  shocked  and  protected  by  cap  bundles, 
so  as  to  reduce  exposure  to  the  sun  as  much  as  possible. 
Careless  shocking  results  in  many  sun-cracked  grains  which 
usually  break  in  milling. 

In  the  rice-growing  districts  of  the  South  Atlantic  states, 
the  use  of  the  grain  binder  is  often  impractical  on  account 
of  the  bogginess  of  the  soil  at  harvest  time  or  the  small 
size  of  the  fields.  In  such  cases  the  crop  is  harvested  with 
a  sickle,  the  cut  grain  being  laid  upon  the  stubble  to  cure. 
After  a  day's  curing  it  is  bound  into  small  bundles,  re- 
moved from  the  wet  field  and  shocked  on  dry  ground. 

451.  Thrashing.  —  The    rice    crop    is    now   thrashed 
with  steam  thrashers,  except  in  special  cases,  when  the 
primitive  method  of  "flailing"  is  employed.     While  the 
use  of  the  steam  thrasher  frequently  involves  the  breakage 
of  considerable  grain,  it  furnishes  the  most  economical 
means  of  separating  the  grain  from  the  straw.    Without 
it  the  present  extensive  production  of  rice  in  this  country 
would  be  impossible. 

If  the  grain  comes  from  the  thrasher  in  a  damp  condi- 
tion, it  should  be  spread  out  on  a  floor  and  thoroughly 
dried  before  it  is  placed  in  sacks  or  barrels.  Rice  is  usually 
sold  by  the  barrel  of  162  pounds.  A  sack  is  an  indefinite 
quantity  but  usually  contains  from  150  to  200  pounds. 
A  bushel  of  rough  rice,  or  "  paddy, "  is  45  pounds.  A 
pocket  of  clean  rice  is  100  pounds. 

452.  Yield.  —  Ordinarily  the  yield  of  rice  grain  ranges 
from  20  to  40  bushels  to  the  acre.    By  greater  care  in  the 


368        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

'selection  of  seed  and  the  preparation  of  the  seed-bed,  the 
average  yield  can  be  materially  increased.  In  exceptional 
cases  more  than  100  bushels  have  been  secured  from  one 
acre. 

PREPARATION  AND   USES   OF   RICE 

453.  Cleaned  rice.  —  In  order  to  secure  cleaned  rice 
the  " paddy"  or  rough  rice  must  be  put  through  a  com- 
plicated milling  process.  Modern  rice  mills  comprise 
a  vast  network  of  complicated  machinery.  In  going 
through  these  mills  the  rice  is  subjected  to  the  following 
process  in  the  order  given: 

(1)  Screening,  which  removes  trash  and  foreign  parti- 
cles. 

(2)  Removal  of  the  hull  by  "rapidly  revolving  'milling 
stones '  set  about  two-thirds  of  the  length  of  a  rice  grain 
apart." 

(3)  Separation  of  the  light  chaff  and  the  whole  and  bro- 
ken kernels  by  passing  the  mixed  product  over  horizontal 
screens  and  blowers. 

(4)  Removal  of  the  cuticle  or  outer  coverings  of  the  ker- 
nels.    To  accomplish  this  the  kernels  are  put  in  large 
mortars  holding  4  to  6  bushels  each  and  pounded  with 
pestles  weighing  350  to  400  pounds. 

(5)  Separation  of  the  flour  and  fine  chaff  removed  in 
(4),  from  the  clean  rice,  by  passing  the  mixture  first  over 
flour-screens  and  then  through  the  fine-chaff  fan. 

(6)  Cooling.  —  The  partially  clean  rice  is  passed  to  the 
cooling  bins  where  it  remains  for  8  or  9  hours  until  the 
heat  generated  in  the  previous  friction  process  has  escaped. 

(7)  Removal  of  the  smallest  rice  and  what  little  flour 
is  left  by  means  of  brush  screens. 

(8)  Polishing.  —  This  is  the  final  process  in  the  produc- 


RICE  369 

tion  of  cleaned  rice.  It  is  accomplished  by  friction  between 
the  rice  kernels  and  pieces  of  extremely  soft,  tanned  moose- 
hide  or  sheep-skin  loosely  tacked  around  a  revolving  double 
cylinder  of  wood  and  wire  gauze.  The  object  of  polishing 
is  to  give  the  rice  its  pearly  luster.  The  polished  rice  is 
now  graded  by  passing  it  over  separating  screens  com- 
posed of  different  sizes  of  gauze.  It  is  then  barreled  and 
is  ready  for  the  market. 

454.  Classification  of  rice  products.  —  The  products 
of  the  rice  in  milling  are  classified  commercially,  as  fol- 
lows: i  Head  rice,   consisting  of  whole  grains;  straights, 
made  up  mostly  of  whole  grains  but  grading  slightly 
lower  than  head  rice;  screenings,  consisting  of  broken 
rice  of  which  there  are  several  grades;  brewers'  rice,  con- 
sisting of  very  finely  broken  rice  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  beer;  rice  polish,  consisting  of  the  highly  nutritious 
flour  removed  from  the  kernels  in  the  process  of  polishing: 
rice  bran,  consisting  of  the  removed  cuticle;  rice  hulls, 
consisting  of  the  removed  flowering  glume  and  palea. 

455.  Uses.  —  Rice  serves  as  the  principal  food  in  the 
dietary  of  more  than  one -half  the  population  of  the  world. 
It  is  usually  eaten  whole  or  in  soups.    Rice  is  very  low  in 
protein  and  consequently  should  be  eaten  in  connection 
with  foods  rich  in  this  constituent.    In  China  rice  is  usu- 
ally eaten  in  connection  with  fish  or  soybeans. 

Rice  is  also  used  in  the  manufacture  of  starch.  The 
lower  grades  are  used  in  .the  production  of  alcoholic 
beverages. 

Rice  polish  is  a  valuable  stock  food  being  rich  in  both 
albuminoids  and  carbohydrates.  It  is  also  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  buttons. 

Rice  bran,  when  fresh,  makes  an  acceptable  food  for 
iKnapp,  S.  A.,  "  Rice."  Cyclo.  Am.  Agr.,  Vol.  I,  p.  537. 


370        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

all  classes  of  domestic  animals.    It  has  a  high  content  of 
fat  and  is  often  fed  in  connection  with  cotton-seed  meal. 
Rice  hulls  are  valued  highly  as  a  manure  for  rice  lands. 
They  are  of  practically  no  value  as  a  stock  food. 

ENEMIES   OF  RICE 

456.  Weeds.  —  Red  rice,  so  called  because  of  the  red 
color  of  the  grains,  is  of  more  annoyance  to  rice-growers 
than  any  other  weed.  It  is  a  wild  variety  of  rice  and  will 
cross  readily  with  the  improved  varieties.  Contrary  to 
the  opinion  of  many  rice-growers,  the  red  rice  and  the  com- 
mon white  rice  are  two  distinct  varieties  and  one  will  not 
produce  the  other.  As  the  red  rice  is  more  hardy  and  per- 
sistent than  the  cultivated  varieties  it  often  becomes  a 
serious  pest.  In  the  United  States  where  the  demand  is 
for  white  rice,  the  admixture  of  red  rice  grains  in  white 
rice  reduces  greatly  its  market  value. 

To  keep  the  field  clear  of  red  rice,  the  grower  must  ex- 
ercise the  greatest  caution  to  secure  and  plant  seed  that 
is  free  from  it.  If  red  rice  has  already  been  introduced 
into  a  field  it  can  be  eradicated  by  preventing  it  from  ma- 
turing seed. 

Many  other  troublesome  grasses  and  weeds  invade 
rice  fields.  Some  of  the  methods  recommended  for  ridding 
rice  lands  of  these  pests  are:  (1)  Plowing  the  field  soon 
after  harvest,  a  treatment  causing  the  weed  seeds  to 
germinate,  whereupon  they  are  killed  by  frost,  or  in  some 
cases  mowed  and  burned.  (2)  Plowing  the  field  early  in 
the  spring,  thus  inducing  the  weed  seeds  to  germinate. 
They  are  then  killed  by  cultivation  before  the  rice  is 
planted.  (3)  Planting  no  rice  for  a  year  or  two  and  thus 
allowing  the  dry  land  weeds  to  crowd  out  the  water 
weeds. 


RICE  371 

457.  Insects.  —  Only  a  few  insects  attack  the  rice 
plant.    The  one  causing  greatest  injury  is  the  rice  water- 
weevil.     While  in  the  larval  stage  it  destroys  the  roots, 
and  later  the  adults  feed  on  the  leaves.    The  most  practical 
means  of  controlling  the  rice  weevil  consists  in  the  tempo- 
rary withdrawal  of  the  water  and  the  drying  out  of  the 
land.      Alternate   flooding   and    drying,    when   properly 
carried  out,  is  also  recommended. 

458.  Fungous  diseases.  —  Rice  blast  (Piricularia  oryzce 
attacks  the  node  in  which  the  rice  head  is  forming,  causing 
the  head  to  fail  to  fill  or  to  break  off.    Experts  do  not  agree 
as  to  the  treatment  of  this  disease.    Some  of  the  preventive 
measures  that  have  been  recommended  are:  the  application 
of  lime  to  the  soil,  the  destruction  of  stubble  and  trash 
by  burning  over  the  fields  and  the  use  of  early  maturing 
varieties. 

Rice  smut  (Tilletia  horrida)  which  fills  the  kernels  with 
a  mass  of  black  spores,  is  sometimes  sufficiently  prevalent 
to  do  serious  damage.  For  its  control,  either  the  hot- 
water  treatment,  page  339,  or  the  formalin  treatment, 
page  339,  is  recommended. 


CHAPTER  XXXII 
THE  SORGHUMS  (Andropogon  sorghum) 

IN  its  agricultural  or  restricted  sense  the  term  "sor- 
ghum" includes  only  the  saccharine  varieties.  In  this 
chapter  the  term  will  be  used  in  its  broad  or  botanical 
sense  which  includes  (a)  the  saccharine  sorghums,  (b) 
the  non-saccharine  sorghums,  commonly  known  as  grain- 
sorghums,  (c)  the  broom-corns,  and  (d)  the  grass  sorghums, 
most  important  of  which  are  Sudan-grass,  Johnson-grass, 
and  Tunis-grass.  As  the  members  of  the  latter  group  are 
grown  for  forage  only  they  will  not  be  treated  in  this  text. 

459.  Biological  origin.  —  Authorities  have  generally 
agreed  that  the  cultivated  sorghums  were  originally  de- 
rived from  the  well-known  wild  species,  Andropogon  hale- 
pensis,  commonly  known  in  the  United  States  as  Johnson- 
grass.  However,  it  has  been  recently  pointed  out  that  the 
wild  forms  of  sorghum  easily  separate  into  two  groups.1 
One  group  includes  the  perennials  with  root-stocks  like 
the  various  varieties  of  Johnson-grass;  the  other  group 
includes  annuals  without  root-stocks,  such  as  Sudan-grass 
and  Tunis-grass.  These  wild  annual  forms  cross  readily 
with  the  cultivated  sorghums,  whereas  the  perennial  forms 
and  the  cultivated  sorghums  are  crossed  with  considerable 
difficulty.  It  would  therefore  seem  that  the  original 
prototype  of  our  cultivated  sorghums  is  to  be  found 
among  the  wild  annual  forms  of  Andropogon  sorghum, 
1  Piper,  C.  V.,  "Forage  Plants  and  Their  Culture,"  p.  260. 
372 


THE  SORGHUMS  373 

referred   to  above.     This  view  has  been  expressed  by 
Piper  in  his  book  on  Forage  Plants. 

460.  Geographical  origin.  —  The  cultivated  sorghums 
originated  in  the  tropics  of  the  Old  World.  An  independent 
origin  in  tropical  Africa  and  in  India  is  held  by  Ball.1 
Hackel,2  as  a  result  of  his  studies,  concludes  that  the  culti- 
vated sorghums  originated  in  Africa.    As  the  wild  annual 
forms  of   sorghum  are   confined  largely  to  Africa,   the 
African  origin  of  the  cultivated  forms  seems  the  most 
likely. 

461.  Botanical  classification.  —  Botanically  the   sor- 
ghums are  classed  as  follows:  Order —  Graminese;  tribe  — 
Andropogonese;  genus  —  Andropogon;  species  —  Sorghum 
var.  vulgare. 

As  a  key  to  the  principal  groups  of  sorghum,  the  follow- 
ing classification  has  been  proposed  by  Ball:3 

•  » 

I.  Pith  juicy. 

A.  Juice  abundant  and  very  sweet. 

1.  Internodes  elongated;  sheaths  scarcely  overlapping; 
leaves  12-15  (except  in  Amber  varieties);  spikelets 
elliptic-oval  to  obovate,  2.5-3.5  mm.  wide;  seeds 
reddish  brown.  I.  Sorgo. 

B.  Juice  scanty,  slightly  sweet  to  subacid. 

1.  Internodes  short;  sheaths  strongly  overlapping;   leaves 

12-15;  peduncles  erect;  panicles  cylindrical;  spikelets 
obovate,  3-4  mm.  wide;  lemmas  awnless.  II.  Kafir. 

2.  Internodes  medium;  sheaths  scarcely  overlapping;  leaves 

8-11;  peduncles  mostly  inclined,  often  recurved;  panicles 
ovate;  spikelets  broadly  obovate,  4.5-6  mm.  wide; 
lemmas  awned.  VII.  Milo. 

1  Ball,  Carleton  R.,  U.  S.  Dep't  of  Agr.  Bur.  Plant  Ind.,  Bui.  175, 
pp.  9-10. 

2  Hackel,  Edward,  "The  True  Grasses,"  p.  59. 

3  Ball,  Carleton  R.,  U.  S.  Dep't  Agr.  Bur.  Plant  Ind.,  Bui.  175, 
p.  8. 


374         FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

II.  Pith  dry. 

A.  Panicle  lax,  2.5-7  dm.  long;  peduncles  erect;  spikelets  elliptic- 

oval  or  obovate,  2.5-3.5  mm.  wide;  lemmas  awned. 

1.  Panicle  4-7^  dm.  long;  rachis  less  than  one-fifth  as  long  as 

the  panicle. 

a.  Panicle  umbelliform,  the  branches  greatly  elongated, 
the  tips  drooping;  seeds  reddish,  included. 

III.  Broom-corn. 

2.  Panicle  2.5-4  dm.  long;  rachis  more  than  two-thirds  as  long 

as  the  panicle. 

a.  Panicle  conical,  the  branches  strongly  drooping;  glumes 

at  maturity  spreading  and  involute;  seeds  white  or 
somewhat  buff.  IV.  Shallu. 

b.  Panicle    oval    or   obovate,    the    branches    spreading; 

glumes  at  maturity  appressed,  not  involute;  seeds 
white,  brown,  or  reddish.  V.  Kowliang. 

B.  Panicle  compact,  1-2.5  dm.  long;  peduncles  erect  or  recurved; 

rachis  more  than  two-thirds  as  long  as  the  panicle. 

1.  Spikelets   elliptic-oval   or   obovate,    2.5-3.5   mm.    wide; 

lemmas  awned.  V.  Kowliang. 

2.  Spikelets  broadly  obovate,  4.5-6  mm.  wide. 

a.  Glumes  gray  or  greenish,  not  wrinkled;  densely  pubes- 

cent;   lemmas    awned    or    awnless;    seeds    strongly 
flattened.  VI.  Durra. 

b.  Glumes  deep  brown  or  black,  transversely  wrinkled; 

thinly    pubescent;    lemmas    awned;    seeds    slightly 
flattened.  VII.  Milo. 

The  above  classification  does  not  include  the  grass  sor- 
ghums. Of  the  seven  groups  included  in  the  above  clas- 
sification, sorgo  has  been  developed  primarily  for  its  sugar 
which  is  largely  used  in  the  form  of  sirup;  kafir,  milo, 
shallu,  kowliang,  and  durra  have  been  developed  pri- 
marily as  grain  crops;  and  broom-corn  for  the  " brush" 
furnished  by  the  seed-bearing  branches  of  the  panicle. 

462.  Root-system.  —  Careful  studies  of  the  root- 
systems  of  sorghum  and  corn  growing  under  the  same  con- 


THE  SORGHUMS  375 

ditions  show  that  both  sweet  and  grain-sorghums  produce 
a  shallower  root-system  than  corn.  As  a  result  of  inves- 
tigations at  the  Kansas  Station,  Ten  Eyck  found  the  roots 
of  kafir  and  Folger  sorgo  largely  confined  to  the  upper  18 
inches  of  soil;  while  corn  under  the  same  conditions  com- 
pletely occupied  the  upper  30  inches  of  soil.  The  deepest 
roots  of  kafir  penetrated  to  a  depth  of  three  feet  while 
corn  sent  its  deepest  roots  four  feet.  The  roots  of  kafir 
were  especially  fine  and  fibrous  and  completely  filled  the 
upper  18  inches  of  soil.  While  the  roots  of  the  sweet 
sorghum  were  somewhat  less  fine  and  hardly  so  abundant 
in  the  upper  soil  strata  as  the  kafir  roots,  they  were  said 
to  resemble  the  kafir  more  than  the  corn  roots.1 

463.  Tillers  and  branches.  —  A  small  bud  is  produced 
at  every  node  of  the  sorghum  culm  except  the  uppermost 
node  which  bears  the.  peduncle  and  main  seed-head  v 
Tillers  result  from  the  growth  of  those  buds  on  the  closely 
crowded  lower  nodes  at  the  surface  of  the  soil.  The  num- 
ber of  these  lower  buds  that  develop  into  tillers  will  depend 
upon  the  habit  of  the  variety  or  the  abundance  of  food 
and  moisture.  From  one  to  ten  is  the  usual  variation. 
The  tillers  are  usually  shorter  and  later  in  maturing  than 
the  main  stalk.  As -a  rule  they  produce  seed. 

In  long  seasons  of  abundant  moisture  the  buds  borne  at 
the  above-ground  nodes  may  develop  into  branches,  by 
forcing  their  way  out  at  the  top  of  the  leaf-sheaths  or  by 
splitting  the  back  of  the  sheaths.  Usually  the  upper- 
most bud  develops  first  followed  in  succession  by  those 
at  the  lower  nodes.  The  number  of  buds  that  thus  de- 
velop into  branches  will  depend  upon  the  length  of  the 
growing  season  and  the  moisture  supply.  Each  branch  is 
a  miniature  stalk  bearing  leaves  and  a  seed-head. 
1  Kans.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  127,  pp.  207-208. 


376        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

464.  Drought  resistance,  —  The  peculiar  adaptation 
of    the    sorghums,   particularly  the    grain-sorghums,   to 
agriculture  in  semi-arid  regions,  is  well  known.     As  to 
those  qualities  or  factors  that  enable  the  sorghums  to 
successfully  resist  dry,  hot  weather,  our  knowledge  is  less 
clear.    These  qualities  cannot  be  attributed  to  the  exten- 
siveness  or  depth  of  the  root-system  as  we  have  already 
seen  that  the  root-system  of  sorghum  is  less  extensive  than 
cprn,   a  crop  not  particularly  adapted  to  dry  regions. 
Observations  also  indicate  that  as  much  water  is  required 
to  produce  a  pound  of  dry  matter  in  sorghum  as  in  corn. 
It  would  therefore  seem  that  the  rather  prevalent  belief 
in  the  exceptionally  low  water  requirement  of  sorghum  is 
not  tenable.    The  most  probable  explanation  of  the  pecul- 
iar adaptability  of  the  sorghums  to  dry,  hot  regions  is  to  be 
found  (1)  in  the  high  degree  of  resistance  of  the  sorghum 
plant  to  injury  from  dry,  hot  weather  and  (2)  the  ability  of 
the  sorghum  plant  to  cease  growing  and  become  prac- 
tically dormant  during  periods  of  severe  drought,  growth 
being  renewed  without  any  apparent  injury  with  the 
coming  of  rain. 

465.  Effects  on  the  soil.  —  The  sorghums,   particu- 
larly the  saccharine  varieties,  are  generally  considered  to  be 
hard  on  the  land.     The  reasons  for  this  are  not  clear. 
Among  the  explanations  so  far  advanced  the  following 
seem  to  be  the  most  reasonable:    (1)  The  sorghums  seem 
to  concentrate  their  feeding  roots  in  the  upper  layers  of 
soil  to  a  greater  degree  than  most  other  crops,  which 
peculiarity  probably  results  in  exhausting  the  surface  soil 
of  its  available  fertility.    (2)  Sorghum  stubble  often  breaks 
up  cloddy  on  account  of  the  fact  that  the  soil  is  held  to- 
gether by  the  matted  roots.    (3)  The  slowness  with  which 
sorghum  stubble  decays  renders  its  immediate  effects  less 


THE  SORGHUMS  377 

apparent  than  that  produced  by  other  forms  of  vegetable 
matter. 

The  evil  effects  of  sorghum  on  the  land  are  usually  only 
temporary,  being  most  marked  on  the  first  crop  following 
and  completely  disappearing  in  two  or  three  years. 

466.  Fertilization  and  crossing.  —  The  sorghums  are 
capable    of   both    self-pollination    and    cross-pollination. 
They  are  normally  self-pollinated  and  are  not  injured  by 
this  process  as  is  corn. 

As  the  light  pollen  of  sorghums  is  easily  carried  by  the 
wind,  different  varieties  or  types,  when  planted  close  to- 
gether are  subject  to  more  or  less  crossing.  Ball l  found 
that  when  different  varieties  were  planted  in  adjacent  rows 
and  flowered  at  the  same  time  as  high  as  50  per  cent  of  the 
seed  produced  on  the  leeward  row  was  cross-fertilized.  It 
has  been  conclusively  demonstrated  that  all  of  the  different 
types  of  sorghum,  such  as  saccharine  and  non-saccharine 
sorghums,  and  the  broom-corns  will  intercross  readily  if 
grown  in  close  proximity  to  each  other. 

467.  Breeding  (Figs.  63,  64).  — Sorghum  lends  itself 
easily  to  improvement  by  selection.    The  selection  should 
be  made  before  the  plants  flower,  and  the  selected  plants 
should  be   prevented  from  becoming   contaminated  by 
bagging  the  heads  before  the  stigmas  are  exposed.    The 
bags  should  be  removed  as  soon  as  the  seeds  have  set  to 
prevent  the  heads  from  molding. 

The  producing  power  of  the  selected  plants  is  deter- 
mined by  the  head-to-row  method.  This  method  is  carried 
out  in  the  same  manner  as  the  ear-to-row  test  of  corn, 
page  196,  except  that  in  the  sorghum  breeding-plot  no  pre- 
cautions are  taken  to  prevent  inbreeding.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  best  heads  in  the  most  productive  rows  are 
1  Ball,  Carleton  R.,  Am.  Breeders'  Assoc.,  Vol.  VI,  p.  193. 


378        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

bagged  each  year  and  used  for  planting  the  breeding-plot 
of  the  next  year. 
The  qualities  selected  for  in  improving  the  saccharine 


FIG.  63.  —  Two  heads  of  Milo  showing  desirable  form  (on  left)  and  unde- 
sirable form  (on  right). 

sorghums  are  juiciness  and  high  sugar  content,  yield, 
disease-resistance,  drought-resistance,  and  erectness. 

In  the  improvement  of  the  grain-sorghums  the  prin- 
cipal consi4erations  should  be  (1)  increased  grain  produc- 
tion; (2)  increased  drought-resistance;  (3)  increased  earli- 
ness;  (4)  dwarf  stature;  (5)  desirable  forms  of  heads; 
(6)  heads  fully  exserted  from  the  upper  leaf-sheath,  or  boot; 


THE  SORGHUMS 


379 


(7)  freedom  from  suckers  and  branches;  (8)  freedom  from 
pendent  heads;  and  (9)  disease-resistance. 

The  dwarf  stature  is  usually  desirable  in  the  grain- 
sorghums  because  it  decreases  the  water  requirement  of 
the  crop  to  a  unit  of  grain  produced.  The  tendency  to 
sucker  is  generally  looked  upon  as  an  undesirable  quality 
in  the  grain-sorghums.  The  suckers  are  usually  shorter 
and  later  maturing  than  the  main  stalks  and  less  produc- 


FIG.  64.  —  Three  plants  of  Blackhull  Kafir,  5.5  feet  high,  selected  for 
low  stature  and  high  yielding  power. 

tive  of  grain.  Best  results  are  secured  when  sufficient  seed 
is  planted  to  furnish  the  desired  number  of  stalks  without 
depending  on  suckers.  Branches  are  absolutely  worthless 
and  should  be  eliminated.  Pendent  heads  make  it  difficult 
to  harvest  the  crop  by  machinery.  All  of  these  characters 
are  to  an  extent  hereditary  and  can  be  more  or  less  con- 
trolled by  selection.  Sorghums  are  crossed ,  artificially 
with  little  difficulty.  To  do  this  the  flowers  must  be 
emasculated  before  the  anthers  open. 


380        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

468.  Sorghum  poisoning.  —  Many  instances  are  on 
record  of  the  poisoning  of  cattle  from  feeding  on  the  grow- 
ing plants  of  both  saccharine  and  non-saccharine  sorghums. 
This  injury  is  due  to  the  formation  of  prussic  acid  in  the 
plants,  particularly  in  the  leaves,  under  certain  conditions. 
The  poison  is  produced  by  the  action  of  an  enzyme  on  one 
or  more  of  the  normally  occurring  glucosides  in  the  plant. 
The  amount  of  prussic  acid  in  sorghum  usually  decreases 
as  the  plant  matures.  The  condition  that  favors  the  devel- 
opment of  prussic  acid  in  sorghum  is  a  stunted  growth  of 
the  plants  produced  by  hot,  dry  weather.  It  is  also  claimed 
that  young  plants  of  vigorous  growth  contain  a  higher 
content  of  prussic  acid  than  plants  reaching  maturity. 
Cutting  poisonous  sorghum  and  allowing  it  to  wilt  will 
eliminate  the  poisonous  property.  Sorghum  that  has  been 
stunted  by  hot,  dry  weather  should  be  pastured  with  great 
caution. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 
THE  SACCHARINE  SORGHUMS 

THIS  type  of  sorghum,  commonly  designated  as  "  sweet 
sorghum"  is  characterized  by  the  production  of  stems 
having  a  juicy  pith  that  is  high  in  sugar,  and  a  relatively 
small  seed-crop  as  compared  with  the  grain-sorghums. 
The  saccharine  sorghums  were  introduced  into  the  United 
States  from  China  and  Natal.  In  1853  a  variety  known 
as  " sorgo "  or  "Chinese  sorgo"  was  brought  to  this  coun- 
try from  China  by  way  of  France.  This  early  Chinese 
sorgo  is  the  variety  from  which  our  well-known  and  popu- 
lar Amber  sorghum  has  been  derived.  Several  of  our  other 
commonly  grown  varieties  of  sweet  sorghum,  including 
Orange,  Sumac  and  Gooseneck,  have  been  derived  from 
a  collection  of  Natal  varieties,  introduced  into  Europe  in 
1854  and  thence  into  the  United  States  in  1857.  From 
the  time  of  their  introduction  in  this  country  up  until 
1880  the  sweet  sorghums  were  grown  almost  entirely  as 
a  sirup  crop.  This  continues  as  the  principal  use  of  these 
sorghums  in  the  central  and  southern  states  east  of  the 
Mississippi  River.  Since  1880  the  sweet  sorghums  have 
been  grown  in  the  region  west  of  the  Missouri  River  and 
southward  in  the  Great  Plains  principally  as  a  forage 
crop. 

469.  Classification  of  saccharine  sorghums.  —  The 
classification  here  given  has  been  adopted  from  Ball  by 
Montgomery.1 

1  Montgomery,  E.  G.,  "The  Corn  Crops,"  p.  296. 
381 


382        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

A.  Peduncle  and  panicle  erect. 

1.  Panicle  loose,  open,  branches  spreading  to  horizontal  or  droop- 
ing; rachis  two- thirds  as  long  to  equaling  the  panicle. 

Empty  glumes  black,  hairy I.  Amber 

Empty  glumes  black,  smooth II.  Minn.  Amber 

Empty  glumes  red. III.  Red  Amber 

Empty  glumes  light  brown IV.  Honey 

Rachis  less  than  one-half  the  length  of  the 
panicle:  — 

Panicle  light,  drooping  branches,  seeds 

orange  to  red V.  Collier 

Panicle  heavy,  seeds  orange VI.  Planter's 

Friend 
*  2.  Panicle  close,  compact. 

Empty  glumes  equal  to  seeds,  seed  red. VI I.  Orange 
Empty  glumes  half  as  long  as  the  small 

seeds,  seeds  dark  red VIII.  Sumac 

Empty  glumes  narrow IX.  Sapling 

B.  Peduncle  recurved  (goosenecked)  or  sometimes 

erect. 

Panicle  black,  glumes  awned X.  Gooseneck 

A  brief  description  of  the  varieties  that  are  most  impor- 
tant in  the  cotton-belt  is  given  below: 

470.  Sumac    sorghum,    often   known   as    "  Red  top," 
produces  a  very  compact,  deep  red  seed-head  somewhat 
similar  to  Sumac,  which  character  gives  it  its  name.   Under 
average  conditions  the  plants  grow  7  to  8  feet  high  and  are 
rather  stout  and  erect.    Sumac  sorghum  matures  in  from 
105  to  120  days.    Owing  to  its  high  value  for  sirup,  forage, 
and  silage  it  is  especially  popular  in  the  South,  particu- 
larly throughout  the  Piedmont  region  and  in  Oklahoma 
and  Texas.    It  is  said  to  be  the  most  uniform  of  the  sweet 
sorghum  varieties. 

471.  Orange  sorghum  (Fig.  65)  usually  does  not  grow 
quite  as  tall  as  Sumac,  and  prqduces  rather  stout  erect 
stalks,  the  seed-heads  of  which  are  rather  long,  of  medium 


THE  SACCHARINE  SORGHUMS 


383 


compactness,  and  present  an  orange  tinge  due  to  the  par- 
tially exserted  orange  colored  seeds.  It  matures  in  about 
the  same  length  of  time  as  Sumac  sorghum.  Orange  sor- 
ghum is  an  excellent  va- 
riety for  sirup  production, 
and  being  rather  leafy,  is 
also  a  good  variety  for 
forage. 

472.  Amber  sorghum  is 
probably  the  most  largely 
grown    variety    of    sweet 
sorghum    in    the    United 
States.     It  is  very  early, 
maturing  usually   in   less 
than  100  days,  and  for  this 
reason      has      practically 
crowded  all  other  varieties 
out  of  the  section  north 
of  Kansas  and  the  Ohio 
River,     which     comprises 
the  northern  limit  of  the 
sorghum-belt.    It  is  very 
popular  in  Kansas,  Okla- 
homa   and    Texas    as    a 
forage  crop.     Amber  sor- 
ghum is  not  a  tall  growing 
variety,  usually  ranging  in 

height  from  5  to  7  feet.  The  seed-head  is  usually  rather 
loose  and  black  in  color.  A  selection  known  as  Red 
Amber  differs  from  the  parent  form  only  in  having  red 
seed-heads. 

473.  Gooseneck  sorghum  is  often  erroneously  called 
" Texas  Seeded  Ribbon  Cane."     The  use  of  the  name 


FIG.  65.  —  A  head  of  Orange 
sorghum. 


384        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

"Seeded  Ribbon  Cane"  has  caused  much  confusion  among 
farmers  inasmuch  as  the  true  sugar-cane  (Saccharum 
officinarum)  is  also  commonly  known  as  "  Ribbon  Cane." 
The  seed  of  " Texas  Seeded  Ribbon  Cane"  has  been 
widely  sold  in  the  past,  often  with  the  claim  that  it  was  a 
form  of  true  sugar-cane  that  both  produced  seed  and  could 
be  grown  from  the  seed.  Investigation  has  shown  this 
plant  to  be  the  old  familiar  Gooseneck  sorgo.  It  is  in  no 
sense  a  variety  of  Ribbon  Cane  and  the  application  of  this 
name  to  it  should  be  discontinued.  Owing  to  the  popu- 
larity of  the  so-called  Texas  Seeded  Ribbon  Cane,  seed 
of  other  varieties  of  sweet  sorghum  have  been  substituted 
for  it  and  sold  as  "  Straightneck  Seeded  Ribbon  Cane." 
Gooseneck  sorghum  is  the  largest  and  one  of  the  latest 
varieties  of  sweet  sorghum.  The  plants  grow  from  9  to 
12  feet  tall  with  from  25  to  50  per  cent  of  the  peduncles 
recurved,  which  character  gives  it  its  name.  The  stalks 
are  from  one  to  two  inches  in  diameter  at  the  base  and  are 
rich  in  sugar;  and  hence  a  very  valuable  variety  for  sirup. 

474.  Honey   sorghum,   sometimes   incorrectly   called 
" Japanese  Seeded  Cane"  was  found  growing  in  Texas 
in  1904.    It  produces  tall  stems  that  are  very  juicy  and 
sweeter  than  any  other  variety  known.     The  stems  are 
very  tender  and  are  excellent  for  sirup  making.    Honey 
sorghum  is  a  very  late  variety  requiring  from  125  to  140 
days  to  mature. 

475.  Climatic    adaptations.  —  With    few    exceptions 
the  climatic  adaptations  of  the  saccharine  sorghums  are 
similar  to  those  of  corn.    They  are  less  injured  by  intense 
heat  or  drought  than  corn  but  they  are  easily  susceptible 
to  injury  both  in  the  spring  and  fall  by  even  light  frosts. 
In  regions  of  cool  summers  they  are  of  little  value.     A 
warm  summer  climate  is  absolutely  essential. 


THE  SACCHARINE  SORGHUMS  385 

476.  Soils  and  fertilizers.  —  Sweet  sorghum  may  be 
successfully  grown  on  soils  of  almost  any  character  provided 
they  are  reasonably  fertile  and  well-drained.    These  crops 
are  strong  feeders  and  excellent  drought  resisters,  which 
qualities  often  cause  them  to  be  planted  on  the  poorest 
land  of  the  farm.  .  The  fertile  soils  are  often  avoided  for 
sorghums  grown  for  forage  because  the  stems  are  finer  on 
the  less  productive  soils.     The  tendency  of  sorghums  to 
produce  coarse  stems  when  planted  on  rich  soils  can  be 
overcome  by  sowing  the  crop  thicker.    For  sirup  produc- 
tion a  rather  fertile,  medium  textured  loam  is  preferred. 

While  it  is  customary  to  grow  the  sorghums  without 
fertilizer,  they  are  surface  feeders  and  will  respond  to 
judicious  fertilization  as  readily  as  will  corn.  The  charac- 
ter, amount  and  method  of  application  of  fertilizer  for  sor- 
ghum are  the  same  as  for  corn. 

477.  Preparation  of  the  land.  —  The  sweet  sorghums 
require  no  special  preparation  of  the  soil  other  than  that 
recommended  for  corn.    As  the  young  plants  grow  very 
slowly,  the  seed-bed  should  be  plowed  early  and  harrowed 
frequently  before  seeding  in  order  to  kill  any  weeds  that 
may  have  started. 

478.  Time,  rate,  and  method  of  planting.  —  The  sweet 
sorghums  are  usually  planted  from  two  to  four  weeks  after 
the  earliest  corn.     In  the  cotton-belt  the  greater  part  of 
the  crop  for  sirup  is  planted  in  May.    For  forage,  sorghum 
may  be  planted  in  the  central  portion  of  the  Gulf  states 
at  any  time  from  April  1st  to  July  1st,  although  reduced 
yields  are  usually  secured  from  the  very  late  plantings. 

When  grown  for  sirup,  the  rows  should  be  3J/2  feet  apart 
and  the  plants  from  4  to  8  inches  apart  in  the  row.  Plant- 
ing is  best  done  with  an  ordinary  corn  or  cotton  planter 
fitted  with  special  sorghum  plates.  Sometimes  the  corn- 


386        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


planting  plates  are  modified  for  planting  sorghum  by  fill- 
ing the  holes  with  lead  and  boring  them  out  to  the  proper 
size.  In  all  except  the  semi-arid  region  of  the  cotton-belt 
surface  planting  is  recommended.  The  two-row  corn 
planter  is  largely  used  for  this  purpose.  In  the  drier 
sections  of  Texas  and  Oklahoma  the  seed  is  often  planted 
in  a  lister  furrow. 

479.  Cultivation.  —  The    cultivation    of    sorghum    is 
much  the  same  as  for  corn.    As-a  rule  the  weeder  or  harrow 
should  be  used  until  the  plants  are  large  enough  to  permit 
the  use  of  any  of  the  common  types  of  cultivators.    At 
least  one  light  harrowing  should  be  given  before  the  plants 
are  up  and  another  when  they  are  large  enough  to  escape 
injury.     Tillage  by  separate  rows  should  continue  until 
the  plants  have  almost  reached  the  heading  stage. 

480.  Harvesting.  —  When  grown  for  sirup,  sorghum 
should  be  harvested  when  the  seed  have  reached  the  hard 
dough  stage.   The  crop  increases  rapidly  in  total  weight  un- 
til maturity.   The  sugar  content  also  increases  rapidly  from 
the  time  the  panicles  appear  until  maturity  as  shown  below: 

TABLE  37.  SUGAR  CONTENT  OF  SORGHUM  AT  DIFFERENT  STAGES 
OF  GROWTH  1 


STAGE  OF  CUTTING 

SUCROSE 
(Per  Cent) 

INVERT  SUGAR 
(Per  Cent) 

Panicles  just  appearing  
Panicles  entirely  out        .  . 

1.76 
3  51 

4.29 
4  50 

Flowers  all  out  

5.13 

4.15 

Seed  in  milk  
Seed  doughy,  becoming  dry.  . 
Seed  dry,  easily  split  

7.38 
8.95 
10.66 

3.86 
3.19 
2.35 

Seed  hard  

11.69 

1  81 

1  U.  S.  Dep't  of  Agr.  Farmers'  Bui.,  477,  p.  12  (average  of  2740 
analyses). 


THE  SACCHARINE  SORGHUMS  387 

When  grown  for  silage,  the  sweet  sorghums  should 
be  cut  when  the  seeds  are  going  out  of  the  soft  dough  stage. 
If  the  seeds  are  fully  ripe  many  of  them  will  pass  through 
the  animal  undigested.  Sorghum  for  hay  should  be  har- 
vested when  fully  headed. 

When  the  crop  is  utilized  for  sirup,  the  leaves  are  usu- 
ally stripped  while  the  plants  are  standing.  Whatever 
the  method  followed  it  is  important  that  the  canes  be 
stripped  before  pressing;  otherwise  the  yield  of  juice  is 
decreased  and  the  percentage  of  impurities  in  the  juice 
is  increased.  The  crop  is  cut  by  hand  or  with  a  corn 
harvester.  If  the  weather  is  warm  the  cut  cane  should  be 
pressed  within  one  or  two  days  after  cutting  to  prevent 
the  stalks  from  fermenting.  Frosted  sorghum  should  be 
cut  at  once  and  put  in  large  shocks.  This  should  be  done 
without  stripping  or  topping  the  plants  if  the  shocks  are 
to  stand  for  several  days. 

481.  Manufacturing  the  sirup.  —  This  process  com- 
prises three  important  steps:  (1)  The  extraction  of  the 
juice;  (2)  clarification  of  the  juice,  and  (3)  evaporation 
of  the  juice. 

The  juice  is  extracted  by  running  the  canes  through 
heavy  roller  mills  run  by  horse  power  or  by  gasoline  or 
steam  engines.  From  30  to  60  per  cent  of  the  juice  is  ex- 
tracted, the  amount  depending  on  the  type  of  mill  used. 
The  three-roller  type  ordinarily  in  use  extracts  about  60 
per  cent  of  the  juice  from  the  stalks. 

The  raw  juice  contains  from  20  to  30  per  cent  of  impuri- 
ties that  are  removed  by  clarification.  The  means  of 
accomplishing  this  are  as  follows:  (1)  Allowing  the  juice 
to  stand  for  some  time  to  permit  the  impurities  to  settle 
to  the  bottom.  The  juice  is  carefully  drawn  off  leaving 
the  sediment  behind.  (2)  Heating  the  juice  to  coagulate 


388        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

certain  impurities  and  cause  them  to  rise  to  the  top, 
whence  they  are  skimmed  off.  (3)  Adding  10  pounds  of 
dry,  fine  yellow  clay  to  every  50  gallons  of  juice.  The 
particles  of  clay,  on  settling  to  the  bottom  carry  with  them 
much  of  the  suspended  impurities.  (4)  Filtering  the  juice. 
(5)  The  addition  of  a  small  amount  of  milk,  which  coagu- 
lates and  rises  to  the  surface  when  the  juice  is  heated 
bringing  with  it  a  certain  class  of  impurities.  (5)  When 
the  juice  is  somewhat  acid,  a  small  amount  of  lime  is 
added  to  the  heated  juice. 

Skimming,  settling  and  claying  are  the  means  most 
commonly  used  for  clarifying  the  juice. 

The  juice  is  finally  evaporated  in  large  shallow  pans. 
These  pans  are  divided  off  into  compartments  and  the 
boiling  juice  is  made  to  flow  from  one  compartment  to 
another  at  such  a  rate  as  to  concentrate  it  into  sirup  by 
the  time  the  outflow  is  reached. 

482.  Yield.  —  Soils  of  average  fertility  should  produce 
from  8  to  10  tons  of  green  sorghum.    The  amount  of  juice 
extracted  from  a  ton  of  cane  will  vary  with  the  kind  of  mill 
used  and  the  quality  of  the  cane.    With  the  better  grade 
of  mills  from  800  to  1200  pounds  of  juice  should  be  secured 
from  a  ton  of  canes.    This  should  yield  from  15  to  30 
gallons  of  sirup.    The  sugar  content  of  cane  juice  varies 
from  8  to  15  per  cent. 

483.  Enemies.  —  Two  smuts    affect   the   sweet  sor- 
ghums, viz.,  the  grain  smut  (Phacelotheca  diplospora)  and 
the  whole-head  smut  (P.  reiliana).      The  damage  from 
these  diseases  is  usually  light.     Both  can  be  partially 
checked  by  crop  rotation  and  care  in  selecting  planting 
seed.    The  grain  smut  can  be  controlled  by  the  hot-water 
treatment  or  the  formalin  treatment  as  outlined  for  oat 
smut,  page  339. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 
THE  NON-SACCHARINE  SORGHUMS 

THE  term  "  non-saccharine "  as  applied  to  the  group  of 
sorghums  discussed  in  this  chapter  is  somewhat  indefinite 
as  some  of  the  kafirs  have  a  fairly  sweet  juice  and  are 
doubtless  capable  of  being  developed  into  saccharine 
varieties.  •  The  non-saccharine  sorghums,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  broom-corn  are  usually  called  grain-sorghums, 
because  they  are  more  valuable  for  grain  than  for  forage. 
Their  growth  in  the  United  States  on  a  commercial  basis 
is  quite  recent,  although  some  of  the  durras  were  intro- 
duced into  California  in  1874,  kafir  being  introduced  in 
1876. 

484.  The  grain-sorghum  belt.  —  Owing  to  the  re- 
markable drouth  resistance  of  the  grain-sorghums  and 
their  ability  to  withstand  dry,  hot  winds  they  are  most 
completely  at  home  in  the  United  States  in  that  part  of 
the  Great  Plains  region  comprising  western  Texas,  the 
western  third  of  Oklahoma,  the  western  half  of  Kansas 
and  all  of  Colorado  and  New  Mexico  lying  east  of  the 
mountains.  The  most  distinctive  feature  of  this  region 
is  its  climate.  The  annual  rainfall  averages  about  20 
inches,  varying  from  15  to  25  inches,  most  of  which  comes 
from  April  to  September,  inclusive.  The  summers  are 
hot,  and  over  much  of  the  area  steady  winds  prevail 
throughout  the  growing  season  making  evaporation  es- 
pecially rapid.  The  conditions  are  often  such  as  to  destroy 
all  forms  of  tender  vegetation.  Throughout  this  area 

389 


390        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

the  grain-sorghums  are  extensively  grown  as  staple  crops 
and  are  gradually  becoming  the  basis  of  a  great  cattle- 
feeding  industry. 

485.  Groups  of  non-saccharine  sorghums.  —  The  non- 
saccharine  sorghums  in  the  United  States  are  usually 
divided  into  five  groups  as  follows:  Kafir,  durra,  shallu, 
kowliang,  and  the  broom-corns. 

486.  Kafir.  —  The  kafirs  came  originally  from  Natal 
and  the  east  central  coast  region  of  Africa.    The  seed  of 
two  varieties  of  kafir  were  exhibited  by  the  Natal  Govern- 
ment at  the  Centennial  Exposition  at  Philadelphia  in 
1876.    From  these  small  quantities  of  seed  the  kafir  in- 
dustry in  this  country  has  sprung. 

The  kafir  group  in  the  United  States  includes  three 
varieties.  These  are  White  Kafir,  Blackhull  Kafir,  and 
Red  Kafir  (Fig.  66) .  These  varieties  differ  principally  in 
the  color  of  the  seed  -and  hulls.  In  all  varieties  the  heads 
are  erect.  Red  Kafir  usually  grows  6  to  7  feet  high,  while 
the  white  and  black  hull  varieties  seldom  grow  higher  than 
6  feet.  Red  Kafir  is  an  excellent  yielder  of  both  fodder  and 
grain  but  the  seed-coat  has  an  astringent  taste  which  ren- 
ders it  somewhat  less  desirable  as  a  stock  food  than  the 
grain  of  White  or  Blackhull  Kafir.  White  Kafir  is  little 
grown  in  the  United  States  at  the  present  time  because  it 
does  not  mature  well,  and  the  heads,  not  being  well  ex- 
serted  from  the  leaf-sheath,  rot  easily  in  damp  weather. 
Blackhull  Kafir  is  by  far  the  most  popular  variety,  fur- 
nishing about  nine-tenths  of  the  total  kafir  crop  in  this 
country.  Nearly  all  of  the  remaining  tenth  is  Red  Kafir. 

487.  Durra  (Fig.  67)  —  The  three  important  varieties 
of  this  group  are  Yellow  milo,  Brown  durra  and  White 
durra.    The  last  named  variety  is  often  called  "  Jerusalem 
corn, "  "Rice  corn"  or  "  Egyptian  corn."    Another  variety 


THE  NON-SACCHARINE  SORGHUMS          391 


FIG.  66.  —  Heads  of  four  varieties  of  kafir:  1,  White  Kafir;  2,  Guinea 
Kafir  (Guinea  corn  of  the  West  Indies);  3,  Blackhull  Kafir;  4,  Red 
Kafir. 


392        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


of  durra  known  as  Feterita,  and  related  to  milo  and  White 
durra,  has  recently  been  introduced  into  the  United  States 
from  the  British  Egyptian  Sudan,  in  Africa. 

The  durras  are  characterized  by  the  production  of  large, 
somewhat  flattened  seeds  (Fig.  68),,  and  with  the  exception 

of  Feterita,  a  high 
percentage  of  re- 
curved or  goose- 
necked  peduncles. 
As  the  grain  of  White 
durra  shatters  badly 
and  is  frequently  in- 
jured by  insects  and 
disease,  it  is  little 
grown  in  this  coun- 
try. Brown  durra 
is  grown  rather  ex- 
tensively in  southern 
California  and  to  a 
less  extent  in  Texas. 
In  many  respects  it 
resembles  milo. 

Yellow  milo  is  a 
very  popular  grain- 
sorghum,  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  matures  about  two  weeks 
earlier  than  kafir  and  produces  a  large,  brittle  grain  that  is 
easily  masticated  by  stock.  It  is  extensively  grown  in  the 
Pan-handle  of  Texas  and  western  Oklahoma.  Milo  is  little 
grown  for  hay,  silage,  or  soiling  as  the  stalks  are  not  leafy 
and  the  crop  is  usually  quite  mature  when  harvested. 
It  is  grown  almost  exclusively  as  a  grain  and  fodder  crop. 
Yellow  milo  matures  in  90  to  100  days.  It  can  be  grown 
further  north  and  at  higher  altitudes  than  kafir.  Dwarf 


FIG.  67.  —  Milo  heads ;  one  pendent,  one  erect. 


THE  NON-SACCHARINE  SORGHUMS 


393 


milo  is  a  low  growing  strain  of  Yellow  milo  which  has  been 
developed  in  regions  of  scanty  rainfall.  Owing  to  its  ex- 
treme drought  resistance  and  excellent  grain  producing 
qualities  Dwarf  milo  is  now  one  of  the  most  popular  grain- 
sorghums.  There  is  also  a  White  milo  which  is  closely 
related  to  Yellow  milo.  It  differs  from  Yellow  milo  mainly 
in  the  appearance  of  the  glumes  and  seed,  both  of  which 
are  white.  White  milo  is  meeting  with  much  favor  in  the 
grain-sorghum  belt. 

Feterita  is  a  durra  having  erect  heads,  and  large,  soft, 


FIG.  68.  —  Milo  seeds,  hulled  (on  left)  and  un- 
hulled  (on  right)  and  a  small  branch  of  head. 

white  grains.  It  grows  from  4  to  7  feet  high.  Since  its 
introduction  into  the  United  States  extravagant  claims 
have  been  made  for  it  by  uninformed  persons.  Experiments 
by  the  office  of  Forage  Crop  Investigations  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  "show  it  to  be  a  good 
grain  and  forage  crop,  but  not  in  any  way  meriting  ex- 
traordinary praise.  It  has  proved  about  equal  to  milo 
in  yield." 

488.  Shallu  (Fig.  69).  —  This  is  a  peculiar  sorghum 
characterized  by  slender  stems  and  large  loose  panicles 
with  drooping  branches.  The  spikelets  are  somewhat  oval 
in  shape  and  of  yellowish  color.  At  maturity  the  two 


394        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

empty  glumes  spread  wide  apart  and  become  decidedly 
inrolled  or  involute,  thus  completely  exposing  the  hard, 


FIG.  69.  —  Two  heads  of  shallu. 

flattened,  white  or  pearly  seed.     The  plants  grow  from 
5  to  7  feet  tall. 

Shallu  was  introduced  into  the  United  States  from  India 
in  1890  by  the  Louisiana  Experiment  Station,  and  later 
discarded.  It  is  now  found  growing  at  scattered  points 


THE  NON-SACCHARINE  SORGHUMS          395 

throughout  the  grain-sorghum  belt  under  such  misleading 
names  as  "Egyptian  wheat/'  " California  wheat,"  "Mexi- 
can wheat,"  and  others.  The  seed  of  this  crop  has  been 
widely  advertised  by  uninformed  seed  growers  and  sold  at 
exorbitant  prices.  Experiments  conducted  by  the  Office 
of  Forage  Crop  Investigation  of  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  indicate  that  shallu  is  inferior  to  kafir 
and  milo  for  grain  production  and  less  valuable  for  forage 
than  the  sorgos. 

489.  Kowliang.  —  This  distinct  group  of  grain-produc- 
ing sorghums  was  recently  introduced  into  the  United 
States  from  northeast  China  and  the  adjacent  territory 
of  Manchuria  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture to  fill  the  demand  for  an  early  ripening  grain- 
sorghum.    Tests  have  shown  the  kowliangs  to  be  very  good 
grain  producers  but  of  little  value  for  forage.  In  the  greater 
portion  of  the  grain-sorghum  belt  they  are  less  valuable 
than  milo  or  kafir.     By  careful  selection  it  is  probable 
that  the  kowliangs  can  be  made  the  basis  of  important 
grain  crops  for  the  northern  part  of  the  Great  Plains 
where  early  maturing  varieties  are  so  essential. 

490.  Broom-corn  (Fig.  70) .  —  This  is  a  non-saccharine 
sorghum  of  practically  no  value  for  forage,  although  the 
matured  seed  is  valuable  as  a  poultry  and  stock  food.    The 
crop  is  grown  almost  entirely  for  the  elongated  branches 
of  the  seed-head  which  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
brooms. 

The  origin  of  broom-corn  is  not  known.  It  had  its  first 
general  culture  in  Italy.  As  sorghums  have  been  culti- 
vated in  Italy  for  more  than  eighteen  centuries,  it  has 
been  suggested  that  broom-corn  has  probably  been  de- 
rived by  selection  from  a  variety  of  sweet  sorghum  having 
long  branches  and  a  shortened  rachis. 


396        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


The  panicle  of  broom-corn  is  borne  on  an  erect  peduncle 
and  consists  of  a  collection  of  slender  seed-bearing  branches 

from  10  to  28  inches 
long,  attached  to  a 
shortened  rachis  of 
1  to  2  inches  in 
length.  Broom-corn 
resembles  shallu  and 
kowliang  more  than 
other  sorghums. 

The  states  of  Il- 
linois, Kansas,   Mis- 

FIG.  70.  —  Broom-corn  fruit  with  chaff:  r,  .  • 

two  staminate  spikelets;  g},  lower  empty    SOUH,  Nebraska,  and 
er  empty  glume;  g*,  glume    r\i  j   i.  j 


glume;  g2,  upper  ,  r\i  j   i. 

of  rudimentary  flower;  gf,  flowering  glume    Oklahoma 

with  awn;  p,  palet;  c,  caryopsis. 


j 
produce 


broom-corn  crop  in  this  country.  In  order  to  produce  a 
"  brush"  of  high  quality,  dry,  clear  weather  is  essential 
during  the  maturing  and  harvesting  periods.  Rain  at 
this  time  decreases  the  value  of  the  crop  by  dis- 
coloring the  brush.  For  this  reason  broom-corn  is  best 
adapted  to  the  central  Mississippi  valley  and  the  plains 
of  Kansas  and  Oklahoma  and  the  Panhandle  region  of 
Texas. 

There  are  two  distinct  types  of  broom-corn,  differing 
mainly  as  regards  height  of  plant  and  'the  length  and 
strength  of  the  brush.  Standard  broom-corn  grows  10 
to  15  feet  high  with  a  strong  brush  20  to  30  inches  long. 
Dwarf  broom-corn  grows  from  4  to  6  feet  tall  with  a  brush 
12  to  24  inches  long.  Standard  broom-corn  is  largely 
produced  in  central  Illinois  and  is  used  for  the  manufacture 
of  large  brooms.  The  dwarf  type  is  largely  produced  in 
Kansas,  Oklahoma,  and  Nebraska,  and  is  used  in  the  pro- 
duction of  whisk  and  other  small  brooms. 


THE  NON-SACCHARINE  SORGHUMS          397 

491.  Culture  of  the  grain-sorghums.  —  The  seed-bed 
for  the  grain-sorghums  is  prepared  much  as  for  corn.    The 
land  is  plowed  in  either  fall  or  spring,  fall  plowing  usually 
being  preferable.     In  sections  subject  to  "soil  blowing " 
during  the  winter  months,  the  fall-plowed  land  should 
be  left  in  a  rough  condition  until  early  spring  at  which 
time  it  should -be  harrowed  and  thoroughly  prepared  for 
seeding. 

492.  Time,  rate,  and  method  of  seeding.  —  The  grain- 
sorghums  are  hot  weather  crops  and  should  be  planted 
from  two  to  four  weeks  after  the  usual  date  of  planting 
corn.    In  northwest  Texas,  seeding  from  April  15  to  May 
1st  usually  gives  the  most  satisfactory  yields  of  both  grain 
and  forage,  while  seeding  as  late  as  the  middle  of  June 
is  generally  undesirable. 

Grain-sorghums  are  usually  planted  in  rows  3  to  3% 
feet  apart,  with  the  plants  from  3  to  10  inches  apart  in 
the  row.  As  a  rule  the  durras  are  left  a  little  thicker  in 
the  row  than  the  kafirs.  Common  distances  for  durras 
are  from  4  to  8  inches  in  the  row  and  for  kafirs,  6  to  10 
inches.  As  a  result  of  a  three  years'  test  at  Chillicothe, 
Texas,  the  most  satisfactory  yields  of  both  gram  and 
forage  were  secured  from  milo  and  kafir  when  planted 
in  rows  3  feet  apart  and  with  stalks  every  4  inches  in  the 
row.1 

Ordinary  corn  planting  machinery  is  generally  used  for 
planting  these  crops,  the  only  change  necessary  being  the 
use  of  special  sorghum  plates.  In  regions  of  very  low 
rainfall  listing  generally  gives  better  results  than  surface 
planting.  The  latter  method  is  strongly  recommended, 
however,  for  all  regions  except  those  of  very  scanty  rain- 
fall. When  the  crop  is  listed  extreme  care  should  be 
1  Texas  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  132,  pp.  16-17. 


398        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

exercised  to  prevent  the  seed  from  being  covered  deeper 
than  is  necessary  for  good-  germination.  Otherwise  the 
seed  are  likely  to  rot. 

493.  Cultivation.  —  In  general  the  cultivation  of  the 
grain-sorghums  is  the  same  as  for  corn.    During  the  early 
growth  free  use  should  be  made  of  the  weeder  and  harrow 
as  the  young  plants  are  tough  and  not  likely  to  break. 

494.  Harvesting  the  grain-sorghums.  —  For  grain  pro- 
duction the   grain-sorghums   should  be   allowed   to  get 
fully  ripe  before  cutting.     Those  varieties  that  shatter 
badly  may  be  harvested  a  few  days  early  to  prevent  waste 
of  seed.    For  silage  these  crops  should  be  cut  when  in  the 
dough  stage  as  hard  seeds  in  silage  are  likely  to  go  through 
the  animals  undigested. 

The  grain-sorghums  may  be  cut  with  a  corn  binder  and 
shocked  like  corn.  When  they  are  grown  on  a  large  scale, 
this  is  the  most  economical  method  of  harvesting.  Smaller 
areas  may  be  cut  with  the  sled  cutter  or  by  hand.  The 
heads  may  be  subsequently  removed  by  laying  the  bundles 
on  a  block  and  cutting  them  off  with  a  broadaxe  or  saw. 
The  heads  are  often  removed  from  the  standing  stalks 
with  a  sharp  knife.  The  ordinary  grain-header  has  been 
recommended  for  this  purpose  but  the  height  of  the  plants 
and  the  presence  of  pendent  heads  in  some  varieties  pre- 
vent its  general  use.  The  dwarf  type  of  milo  can  be  har- 
vested readily  and  rapidly  with  the  grain-header. 

The  heads  are  thrashed  by  running  them  through  an 
ordinary  thrashing  machine.  If  the  heads  have  not  been 
detached  from  the  stalks  the  ends  of  the  bundles  may  be 
inserted  in  the  thrasher  and  withdrawn  when  the  grain  is 
removed. 

495.  Culture  of  broom-corn.  —  Broom-corn  will  make 
a  satisfactory  yield  on  any  soil  well  suited  to  ordinary  corn, 


THE  NON-SACCHARINE  SORGHUMS          399 

provided  climatic  conditions  are  favorable.  But  as  the 
value  of  the  crop  is  determined  as  much  by  the  quality 
and  uniformity  of  the  brush  as  by  the  yield  to  the  acre, 
extreme  precaution  must  be  taken  to  have  the  land  as 
uniform  as  possible,  particularly  as  regards  its  produc- 
tiveness. The  land  is  prepared  as  for  corn  and  the  seed 
planted  at  the  same  season  as  that  recommended  for  grain- 
sorghum.  For  standard  broom-corn  the  rows  should  be 
3J^  feet  apart  with  the  plants  3  to  5  inches  apart  in  the 
row.  For  dwarf  broom-corn  the  rows  should  be  3  feet 
apart  with  the  plants  2  to  4  inches  apart  in  the  row.  A 
uniform  stand  is  of  paramount  importance.  If  the  plants 
do  not  stand  at  regular  distances  in  the  row,  the  brush 
will  not  be  uniform  and  its  value  will  thereby  be  greatly 
reduced.  About  two  quarts  of  seed  are  required  to  plant 
an  acre.  The  seed  may  be  planted  with  any  form  of  corn 
planter  equipped  with  sorghum  plates.  The  cultivation 
is  the  same  as  for  corn  or  the  other  sorghum  types. 

496.  Harvesting  broom-corn.  —  Harvesting  is  the 
most  important  operation  in  the  production  of  broom-corn. 
To  produce  a  brush  of  high  quality,  the  crop  must  be  cut 
when  just  past  full  bloom  but  before  the  seeds  have  formed. 
The  important  qualities  sought  for  are  a  tough,  flexible, 
uniform  brush  possessing  a  green  color.  If  allowed  to 
mature  the  brush  is  brittle  and  loses  its  green  color. 

Dwarf  broom-corn  is  harvested  by  " pulling"  the  heads 
by  hand,  about  a  foot  of  the  stalk  remaining  attached. 
As  standard  broom-corn  grows  tall  it  must  be  " tabled" 
before  harvesting.  "In  tabling,  one  man  passes  backward 
between  two  rows,  bending  the  stalks  at  a  point  about  30 
inches  above  the  ground  toward  each  other  and  across  the 
row,  so  that  the  heads  hang  about  two  feet  past  the  other 
row.  Two  men  following  cut  off  the  heads  and  place  them 


400        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT    < 

evenly,  on .  every  other  table.  Three  men  can  harvest 
about  two  acres  per  day.  Later  a  team  with  a  wagon 
passes  over  the  empty  tables  and  the  brush  is  collected."  1 
After  the  brush  has  been  pulled  or  cut,  it  is  hauled  to 
the  drying  shed.  Here  the  coarse  or  knotty  brush  is  sep- 
arated from  the  straight  heads;  the  crop  is  then  thrashed. 
Sorting  and  thrashing  often  take  place  before  the  brush 
reaches  the  drying  shed.  When  large  quantities  are  to  be 
thrashed  the  broom-corn  thrasher  should  be  used.  Small 
quantities  may  be  thrashed  by  " scraping"  the  seed  from 
the  brush  by  hand.  After  the  brush  has  been  thrashed,  it 
should  be  placed  under  shelter  and  permitted  to  dry 
rapidly,  especially  if  the  bright  green  color  is  to  be  main- 
tained. It  is  then  pressed  into  bales  weighing  from  300  to 
400  pounds  each,  and  is  ready  for  the  market. 

1  Montgomery,  E.  G.,  "The  Corn  Crops,"  p.  338. 


CHAPTER  XXXV 
SUGAR-CANE  (Saccharum  offidnarum) 

SUGAR-CANE  is  a  rank-growing,  coarse-stemmed  peren- 
nial grass.  It  is  grown  for  its  stems,  the  juice  of  which  is 
extracted  for  making  sugar,  sirup,  and  molasses. 

497.  Nativity.  —  The  genus  Saccharum  includes  about 
a  dozen  species,  all  of  which  are  native  to  the  Old  World. 
The  natural  habitat  of  wild  sugar-cane  is  thought  to  have 
been  southeastern  Asia,  although  it  is  doubtful  whether 
the  wild  form  has  ever  been  observed  by  any  scientist. 
The  domesticated  sugar-cane  is  a  very  ancient  crop,  the 
origin  of  its  culture  having  been  lost  in  antiquity.    It  is 
provable  that  sugar-cane  is  one  of  the  first  crops  cultivated 
by  tropical  people. 

DESCRIPTION 

498.  The    plant.  —  Usually    a    plant    of    sugar-cane 
consists  of  a  number  of  stalks  growing  together  in  a  cluster, 
a  habit  that  is  due  to  the  tendency  of  the  main-stem,  and 
oftentimes  the  secondary  stems,  to  throw  up  additional 
stems  from  the  underground  nodes.     The  usual  height 
of  the  plant  is  8  to  12  feet,  although  in  tropical  regions  it 
grows  taller  (Fig.  71). 

The  duration  of  the  plants  varies  in  different  regions. 
In  tropical  countries  one  planting  usually  furnishes  several 
harvests,  the  stubble  remaining  alive  from  season  to 
season.  In  the  Gulf  Coast  region  of  the  United  States  two 
or  three  crops  are  usually  secured  from  one  planting,  while 

401 


402        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


FIG.  71.  —  A  field  of  sugar-cane. 


SUGAR-CANE  403 

in  the  pine-belt  region  east  of  Louisiana  and  north  of 
Florida,  the  plants  do  not  endure  the  winter  and  annual 
planting  is  necessary. 

499.  Roots.  —  The  root-system  of  sugar-cane  is  fibrous 
and  is  confined  largely  to  the  upper  portion  of  the  soil. 
Where  the  water-table  is  not  near  the  surface  a  few  of  the 
roots  penetrate  the  soil  to  a  depth  of  several  feet.    No 
single  prominent  tap-root  is  produced.    The  roots  spring 
from  the  joints  of  the  underground  nodes  of  the  stem. 
A  band  of  transparent  dots  surrounds  the  stem  at  each 
node.    It  is  from  these  dots  on  the  underground  stem  that 
the  true  roots  arise.    As  a  rule  the  roots  branch  but  little. 

The  root-system  of  sugar-cane  is  especially  susceptible 
to  injury  by  nematodes  and  fungous  pests.  The  ravages 
of  the  nematodes  make  entrances  through  which  the  fungi 
enter.  To  avoid  these  injuries,  sugar-cane  should  not  be 
grown  continuously  on  the  same  land. 

In  addition  to  the  roots  which  spring  from  the  under- 
ground nodes,  the  lower  nodes  of  the  above-ground  stem 
are  usually  well  supplied  with  incipient  roots.  Most  of 
these  roots  enter  the  ground  and  function  actively  in 
promoting  the  growth  of  the  plant. 

500.  The    leaves.  —  The    leaves    of    sugar-cane    are 
broad  and  range  in  length  from  two  to  three  feet.    Each 
leaf  possesses  a  central  mid-rib  somewhat  similar  to  that 
in  the  corn  leaf.    The  lower  part  of  the  leaf  (the  sheath) 
folds  around  the  stem  and  serves  to  protect  the  bud  or  eye 
which  is  borne  at  the  node.    As  the  stem  matures  the  leaf- 
sheaths  fall  away  from  the  stem.    The  falling  of  a  leaf: 
sheath  indicates  the  maturity  of  the  internode  next  below 
this  leaf. 

501.  Inflorescence.  —  In  tropical  countries  most  varie- 
ties of  sugar-cane  "arrow"  or  throw  out  a  dense  silky 


404        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

panicle  at  the  top  of  the  plant  when  twelve  to  thirteen 
months  old,  and  reach  maturity  some  three  months  later. 
The  flowers  are  borne  in  small  spikelets,  which  are  sur- 
rounded by  long  silky  hairs.  Until  recent  years  it  was 
thought  that  the  flowers  of  sugar-cane  were  always  in- 
fertile. In  recent  years,  however,  scientists  have  succeeded 
in  rearing  seedling  canes.  A  very  small  percentage  of  the 
seed  produced  in  a  panicle  is  fertile  and  the  germinating 
power  of  these  fertile  seed  decreases  rapidly  after  maturity 
so  that  at  the  end  of  a  few  weeks  it  is  often  wholly 
lost. 

As  a  rule  sugar-cane  does  not  arrow  and  produce  seed 
in  the  United  States.  In  exceptionally  mild  winters  seed 
may  be  produced  in  the  extreme  southern  parishes  of 
Louisiana  and  in  southern  Florida. 

502.  The  stem.  —  The  industrial  value  of  sugar-cane 
is  so  intimately  associated  with  the  structure  of  the  stems 
and  the  amount  and  nature  of  the  juice  that  a  knowledge 
of  these  essential  features  is  especially  important. 

The  stems  are  large,  cylindrical,  and  distinctly  jointed. 
The  length  of  the  internodes  varies  in  different  varieties 
and  is  decreased  by  any  condition  unfavorable  to  the 
normal  devejopment  of  the  plant.  The  internodes  are 
relatively  short  at  the  base  of  the  stem  and  gradually 
increase  in  length  toward  the  upper  part. 

At  each  joint  on  the  stem,  and  occurring  alternately  on 
opposite  sides,  is  a  bud  about  the  size  of  half  a  pea.  It  is 
from  these  buds  that  the  next  crop  grows  when  the  canes 
are  planted. 

The  color  of  the  sugar-cane  stem  varies  in  different 
varieties.  Purple,  striped  purple  and  white,  and  green  are 
among  the  most  common  colors.  Many  other  colors 
occur,  especially  in  varieties  grown  in  tropical  countries. 


SUGAR-CANE  405 

503.  Structure  of  the  stem.  —  The  sugar-cane  stem 
is  composed  of  juice  and  fiber.    The  outer  part,  commonly 
called  the  rind,  consists  of  a  strong,  tough  fibrous  tissue 
which  gives  strength  and  firmness  to  the  stem.    Inclosed 
by  the  rind  are  the  white  pith-cells  which  contain  the 
saccharine  juice.     Numerous  fine  parallel  fibers  extend 
lengthwise  the  stem  through  the  pith-cells  of  the  inter- 
nodes  and  are  closely  woven  together  at  the  nodes.    For 
this  reason  the  nodes  are  especially  dense  and  fibrous  and 
contain  very  little  juice.    These  fibrous  strands  extending 
throughout   the   stem   contain   the   vessels   or   passages 
through  which  the  water  and  dissolved  plant-food  from 
the  soil  are  brought  upward  to  the  leaves,  and  also  the 
smaller  vessels  known  as  " sieve  tubes"  which  convey  the 
digested  sap  from  the  leaves  to  the  other  parts  of  the  plant. 

As  the  fiber  is  most  compact  at  the  nodes  it  follows  that 
those  stems  having  numerous  nodes  close  together  are 
lowest  in  juice.  For  this  reason  canes  with  long  internodes 
are  generally  desired,  other  things  being  equal.  It  fre- 
quently happens,  however,  that  the  canes  that  are  low 
in  fiber  and  therefore  high  in  sugar  are  less  resistant  to 
diseases  and  the  ravages  of  stalk  borers  than  the  more 
fibrous  sorts.  In  some  cases  this  susceptibility  to  disease 
makes  it  necessary  to  replace  the  long-jointed,  delicate 
sorts  with  varieties  having  more  fiber.  Varieties  with 
large  stems  are  generally  viewed  with  more  favor  than 
those  with  small  stalks  because  of  their  greater  strength, 
and  because  they  contain  more  available  space  for  the 
production  of  juice. 

504.  Amount  and  distribution  of  juice.  —  The  juice 
often  makes  up  as  much  as  90  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the 
stripped  stems.    The  amount  of  juice  varies  with  different 
varieties  and*  under  different  environmental  conditions. 


406         FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

Any  condition  that  retards  growth  tends  to  decrease  also 
the  percentage  of  juice  contained,  although  the  concentra- 
tion of  the  juice  is  usually  increased. 

The  amount  of  juice  varies  in  different  parts  of  the  same 
plant  and  also  with  the  stage  of  maturity.  The  juice 
reaches  its  maximum  near  the  middle  of  the  stalk  and 
decreases  near  the  ends,  the  decrease  being  greatest  near 
the  top.  The  sugar  content  of  the  plant  is  greatest  during 
maturation. 

505.  Composition  of  the  juice.  —  The  juice  of  sugar- 
cane is  a  solution  of  certain  soluble  ingredients,  notably 
sugars,  salts,  acids,  and  the  like,  in  the  cell-water.     As 
extracted  by  the  mill  it  contains  also  some  insoluble  matter, 
such  as  wax,  fat,  albuminoids,  dirt,  and  particles  of  fiber. 
The  sugars  are  the  constituents  which  give  the  juice  its 
value.     The  three  principal  sugars  are  sucrose  (C12  H22 
Ou),  dextrose  (C6  H12  O6)  and  levulose  (C6  H12  O6).    Su- 
crose, which  crystallizes  out  as  cane-sugar,  is  the  constit- 
uent of  greatest  value.     In  fact,  within  the  sugar-belt, 
the  presence  in  the  cane  of  saccharine  matters  other  than 
sucrose  is  deprecated  by  planters,  as  these  substances  not 
only  fail  to  crystallize  but  their  presence  causes  some  of 
the  sucrose  to  fail  to  make  sugar.     In  commercial  work 
dextrose  (often  called  grape-sugar)   and  levulose  (often 
called  fructose  or  fruit-sugar)  together  with  certain  other 
saccharine  substances  of  minor  importance,  are  generally 
spoken  of  collectively  as  glucose.     Chemically  speaking, 
the  term  glucose  is  applicable  to  dextrose  only. 

506.  Conditions    affecting    the    composition    of    the 
juice.  —  The  Louisiana  Station  has  shown  that  climate, 
variety,  culture,  soil  and  fertilization  are  factors  that  have 
an  influence  upon  the  composition  of  sugar-cane  juice.    It 
was  noticed  that  relatively  dry  weather  during  the  fall 


SUGAR-CANE 


407 


months  accompanied  by  a  relatively  high  temperature  de- 
creased the  tonnage  of  cane  produced  but  increased  the 
percentage  of  sucrose  in  the  juice,  whereas  the  opposite 
conditions  greatly  retarded  the  ripening  of  the  cane,  re- 
sulting in  the  production  of  a  high  tonnage  of  cane  having 
a  low  sucrose  content.1 

The  following  table  illustrates  the  influence  that  the 
variety  has  upon  the  composition  of  sugar-cane  juice: 

TABLE  38.  SHOWING  PERCENTAGE  OF  SUCROSE,  GLUCOSE  AND  ASH 
IN  THE  JUICE  OF  FOUR  VARIETIES  OF  SUGAR-CANE  2 


VARIETY 

D.  74 

D.  95 

PURPLE 

STRIPED 

Sucrose  

4.88 

2.45 

2  35 

2  03 

Glucose      

3  24 

3  87 

4  04 

4  26 

Ash 

48 

41 

40 

34 

That  conditions  of  cultivation  have  a  marked  influence 
upon  the  composition  of  sugar-cane  is  shown  by  the  follow- 
ing data  (Table  39,  page  408)  from  the  Louisiana  Station 
secured  as  a  result  of  the  comparative  study  of  plant  and 
stubble  canes. 

In  discussing  these  results,  Browne  and  Blouin  of  the 
Louisiana  Station  say:  "There  is,  of  course,  a  physiological 
explanation  of  these  differences.  In  stubble  cane  we  have 
a  partially  dwarfed  condition  and  according  to  a  well- 
established  law,  when  growth  is  checked,  maturation  is 
hastened.  Exactly  the  same  effect  is  produced  by  the 
non-fertilization  of  cane.  Canes  grown  on  the  non- 
manured  plots  at  the  sugar  experiment  station  average 
much  less  in  weight,  but  are  higher  in  sucrose  than  canes 
which  have  been  fertilized."  3 

1  La.  Sta.,  Bui.  91,  p.  22.  2  La.  Sta.,  Bui.  91,  p.  23. 

3  La.  Sta.,  Bui.  91,  p.  26. 


408 


FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 


TABLE  39.  RELATIVE  YIELD,  AND  FIBER  AND  SUGAR  CONTENT  OP 
PLANT  AND  STUBBLE  CANES  l 


PLANT 

IST  YEAR 
STUBBLE 

2ND  YEAR 
STUBBLE 

Striped  Cane  

Weight  stalk 
Fiber 
Sucrose 

1894  gm. 
6.56% 
4.79% 

1262  gm. 

7.45% 
6.03% 

1042  gm. 
8.02% 
8.45% 

Dextrose 
Leyulose 

2.05% 
1.60% 

2.27% 

1.73% 

1.97% 
1.64% 

D.  74  Cane  

Weight  stalk 
Fiber 
Sucrose 

1575  gm. 
6.28% 
6.33% 

1497  gm. 
7.12% 
7.36% 

1163  gm. 
7.16% 

8.24% 

Dextrose 
Levulose 

1.84% 
1.35% 

1.65% 
1.20% 

1.83% 

1.12% 

507.  Relative  composition  of  cane  in  the  Louisiana 
sugar-belt  and  in  the  coastal  pine-belt.  —  Sugar-cane 
grown  on  the  sandy  uplands  of  the  coastal  pine-belt  is 
ordinarily  richer  in  total  sugars  than  cane  grown  on  the 
alluvial  lands  in  Louisiana.  This  difference  is  due  prin- 
cipally to  the  shorter  growing  season  in  the  upland  pine- 
belt  which  increases  the  percentage  of  glucose,  or  non- 
crystallizable  sugar  in  the  canes.  The  percentage  of  sucrose 
in  the  cane  is  about  equal  in  the  two  regions. 

As  the  greater  part  of  the  cane  crop  grown  in  the  coastal 
pine-belt  is  utilized  for  making  sirup,  the  high  glucose 
content  is  a  decided  advantage  as  it  decreases  the  tendency 
of  the  sirup  to  turn  to  sugar.  The  cane  crop  of  this  region 
is  not  especially  suitable  for  making  sugar  as  the  glucose 
will  not  crystallize  and  its  presence  prevents  some  of  the 
sucrose  from  crystallizing. 


1  La.  Sta.,  Bui.  91,  p.  24. 


SUGAR-CANE  409 


VARIETIES  AND   IMPROVEMENT  OF  SUGAR-CANE 

508.  Varieties.  —  Four  varieties  of  sugar-cane  make 
up  the  bulk  of  the  crop  in  the  cane-growing  regions  of  the 
United  States.  These  are  the  Purple,  or  Red  Cane,  the 
Striped,  or  true  Ribbon  Cane  and  the  recent  varieties  re- 
ferred to  as  D.  74  and  D.  95.  The  Purple  and  Striped 
varieties  were  introduced  into  Louisiana  in  1825  by  John 
J.  Coiron,  a  planter.  The  distribution  of  these  excellent 
varieties  throughout  the  State  gave  the  sugar  industry  of 
that  region  a  substantial  impetus.  Notwithstanding  the 
large  number  of  varieties  that  were  subsequently  intro- 
duced, particularly  by  the  Louisiana  Sugar  Station,  the 
Purple  and  Striped  canes  ranked  as  the  best  varieties  for 
Louisiana  conditions  until  within  recent  years  when  the 
Louisiana  Station  introduced  from  Demerara  the  two  new 
varieties  referred  to  as  D.  74  and  D.  95.  These  latter 
varieties  have  received  from  the  Louisiana  Station  the 
unqualified  recommendation  as  being  better  than  the 
Purple  and  Striped  canes  for  Louisiana  conditions.  Both 
are  early  maturing  varieties,  reaching  maturity  in  about 
10  months  even  when  grown  in  sections  where  the  entire 
twelve  months  is  available  for  their  development.  Their 
chief  advantages  are,  (1)  high  yield,  (2)  high  percentage 
of  crystallizable  sugar  and  (3)  high  purity  of  the  juice. 

"D.  95  is  a  large,  erect,  purple  cane.  It  has  long  joints, 
large  stalks,  and  pale  green  foliage;  it  " suckers"  or 
"rattoons"  well  and  is  fully  as  hardy  toward  cold  as 
ordinary  purple  cane. 

"D.  74  is  a  tall,  erect,  green  cane  with  long  joints  and  a 
deep  green  foliage.  It  "  suckers  "  abundantly  and  produces 
large  stalks  and  heavy  yields."  l 

1  J.  F.  Duggar,  "Southern  Field  Crops,"  p.  506. 


410        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

According  to  tests  made  by  the  Louisiana  Station,  the 
Striped  cane,  when  compared  with  the  Purple,  grew  slightly 
larger  and  the  stalks  were  softer  and  consequently  more 
easily  crushed,  whereas  the  Purple  cane  was  hardier  and 
suckered  more  abundantly  than  did  the  Striped  cane.  The 
Purple  cane  is  the  most  popular  variety  in  the  Coastal  pine- 
belt.  Green  cane  is  a  popular  variety  for  chewing  purposes. 

Little  attention  seems  to  have  been  given  to  varieties  of 
sugar-cane  for  the  Florida  cane  region  other  than  that  the 
best  growers  usually  select  the  light  colored  canes  because 
they  produce  a  light  colored  sirup. 

509.  Japanese    sugar-cane.  —  This   variety   is    suffi- 
ciently distinct  from  the  varieties  described   above  to 
warrant  separate  discussion.    It  is  especially  hardy,  and 
is  successfully  grown  throughout  all  Florida,   southern 
Georgia,  southern  Alabama,  southern  Mississippi,  Lou- 
isiana, and  southern  Texas.    The  stems  are  slender,  which 
characteristic  makes  the  stripping  of  the  leaves  a  laborious 
and  expensive  operation.    Because  of  the  extra  labor  in- 
volved in  stripping  the  leaves  and  because  the  stems  are 
harder  and  more  woody  than  those  of  other  varieties, 
Japanese  cane  is  not  generally  recommended  for  sugar  or 
sirup  making.    It  is  most  valuable  when  used  as  a  forage 
crop  for  feeding  live-stock.     It  suckers  profusely  and  is 
therefore  an  excellent  yielder.     South  of  latitude  33  the 
stubble  will  generally  survive  the  winter,  a  single  planting 
usually  sufficing  for  two  or  more  years.    It  makes  excellent 
winter  pasture,  and  is  also  valuable  either  for  silage  or  dry 
forage. 

510.  Improvement.  —  There  is  much  variability  among 
plants  of  sugar-cane  not  only  as  regards  vigor  of  growth 
but  also  in  the  amount  and  quality  of  the  juice  contained. 
As  these  differences  are  often  hereditary,  much  improve- 


SUGAR-CANE  411 

ment  can  be  accomplished  by  a  careful  selection  of  the 
seed-canes.  The  continuous  planting  of  large  canes 
through  six  generations  by  the  Louisiana  Sugar  Exper- 
iment Station  resulted  in  an  average  production  of  30 
tons  of  cane  an  acre  as  compared  with  an  average  produc- 
tion of  25.95  tons  to  the  acre  for  the  same  period  where 
small  canes  were  planted.  All  defective,  diseased,  or 
immature  canes  should  be  discarded  if  the  most  profitable 
results  are  to  be  secured.  The  planting  of  immature, 
poorly  developed  canes  results  in  a  very  uneven  stand  and 
the  production  of  many  short-jointed  small  canes.  Early 
maturity  is  an  important  factor  in  selecting  the  best  plants 
for  conditions  in  this  country. 

In  recent  years  much  attention  has  been  given  to  the 
work  of  propagating  new  varieties  of  cane  from  seed  rather 
than  by  planting  the  stems.  As  sugar-cane  belongs  to  that 
group  of  plants  which  does  not  come  true  to  type  when 
grown  from  seed,  a  crop  of  seedlings  exhibits  an  enormous 
amount  of  diversity,  opening  up  a  wide  field  for  selection. 
Throughout  the  tropical  cane-growing  regions  many  valu- 
able varieties  have  been  produced  by  this  method.  Since 
1906  the  Louisiana  Sugar  Experiment  Station  at  Audubon 
Park,  Louisiana,  has  succeeded  in  producing  a  large  num- 
ber of  seedling  canes,  the  seed  being  secured  from  tropical 
countries.  It  is  highly  probable  that  as  this  work  con- 
tinues some  of  these  seedling  canes  will  be  developed  into 
excellent  varieties. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI 

SUGAR-CANE  —  CLIMA TE,   SOILS,    ROTATIONS, 
FERTILIZERS  AND  TILLAGE  PRACTICES 

THE  area  within  which  sugar-cane  can  be  successfully 
grown  in  the  United  States  is  limited  primarily  by  cli- 
matic conditions,  such  as  temperature,  length  of  the 
growing  season,  rainfall  and  the  like.  These  limiting 
factors  are  easily  recognized  by  farmers.  The  extent  to 
which  the  essentials  of  good  farm  management,  including 
proper  cropping  systems  and  good  tillage  practices,  in- 
fluence the  profitable  production  of  sugar-cane  has  not 
been  so  generally  recognized. 

511.  Climate.  —  Sugar-cane  is  adapted  to  a  tropical 
climate,  although  early  maturing  varieties  are  successfully 
grown  in  semi-tropical  regions.    For  best  results,  a  grow- 
ing season  of  12  to  14  months  is  required.    The  climatic 
conditions  best  suited  to  sugar-cane  are  found  in  Cuba, 
Java,  Hawaii,  Porto  Rico,  Philippine  Islands,  and  the 
Gulf  Coast  region  of  the  United  States,  particularly  in 
Louisiana,   southern  Florida,   and  southern  Texas.     In 
the  United  States  sugar-cane  for  sirup  is  also  grown  as 
far  north  as  latitude  33,  including  southern  Georgia,  south- 
ern  Alabama,    and   southern   Mississippi.      Throughout 
the  greater  part  of  the  cane-growing  region  of  the  United 
States,  the  season  does  not  extend  over  ten  months. 

512.  Soils.  —  Sugar-cane   is   a   gross  feeder   and   re- 
quires large  quantities  of  water  and  food.    The  best  soils 
for  this  crop  are  the  rich  alluvial  soils  that  are  well  supplied 

412 


SUGAR-CANE  — CLIMATE,  TILLAGE          413 

with  the  plant-food  materials  and  that  have  a  high  water- 
holding  capacity.  In  the  cane-growing  regions  of  the 
United  States,  soils  of  this  character  are  most  abundant 
in  Louisiana.  While  sugar-cane  is  a  heavy  consumer 
of  moisture,  it  must  have  an  open,  well-drained  soil  with 
the  water-table  below  the  feeding  area  of  the  roots.  If 
the  soil  is  not  naturally  well-drained,  artificial  drainage 
should  be  provided.  Soils  naturally  acid  are  unsuited  to 
sugar-cane.  Such  soils  should  receive  an  application  of 
lime  before  being  planted  to  this  crop. 

In  the  coastal  pine-belt  of  the  United  States,  most  of 
the  soils  planted  to  sugar-cane  are  of  a  sandy  nature. 
These  soils  usually  require  rather  heavy  applications  of 
manures  or  fertilizers  if  profitable  crops  are  to  be  pro- 
duced. In  Florida  the  better  grades  of  high  pine  land  pro- 
duce from  15  to  25  tons  of  cane.  The  rolling  pine  lands 
are  well  adapted  to  sugar-cane  without  further  drainage. 
The  flat-woods'  soils,  the  flat  hammock  lands  and  re- 
claimed marsh  lands  generally  require  artificial  drainage. 

The  yield  of  cane  on  the  sandy  soils  of  the  pine-belt  is 
less  than  on  the  alluvial  soils  of  Louisiana,  but  the  juice 
is  richer  in  total  sugars,  which  is  a  partial  compensation 
for  the  smaller  yields. 

513.  Rotations.  —  The  highest  yields  of  sugar-cane 
are  produced  where  the  cane  is  planted  on  land  which  has 
the  year  previously  been  planted  to  cowpeas,  velvet 
beans,  or  such  crops  as  will  add  to  the  supply  of  organic 
matter  and  nitrogen  in  the  soil.  The  heavy  growth  of 
stalks  and  the  practice  of  burning  the  leaves  rapidly  ex- 
hausts the  soil  nitrogen  and  sugar-cane  should  never  follow 
itself  on  the  same  land,  except  where  it  is  desirable  to  grow 
one  or  more  crops  of  " stubble"  cane.  A  rotation  quite 
generally  practiced  by  the  best  sugar-cane  planters  in 


414         FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

Louisiana  is:  First  year,  corn  with  cowpeas  sown  broad- 
cast at  the  last  cultivation;  second  year,  sugar-cane  from 
planted  cane;  third  year,  sugar-cane  from  old  stubble.  On 
rich  land  a  second  crop  of  " stubble  cane"  is  often  grown. 

As  a  rule  the  entire  crop  of  cowpeas  should  be  plowed 
under.  The  Louisiana  Sugar  Station  secured  an  increase 
of  7.4  tons  of  cane  to  the  acre  from  plowing  under  the  en- 
tire growth  of  cowpeas  as  compared  with  plowing  under 
only  the  cowpea  stubble. 

The  Florida  Station  recommends  sweet  potatoes  or 
velvet  beans  as  crops  to  precede  sugar-cane  in  that  State. 

514.  Fertilizers.  —  There  are  few  crops  so  exhaustive 
of  soil  nitrogen  as  sugar-cane.  The  tonnage  of  dry  matter 
removed  to  the  acre  is  greater  than  is  generally  taken 
from  the  land  with  other  crops.  In  addition  the  leaves 
and  tops  are  usually  burned  in  the  field  and  the  nitrogen 
they  contain  is  thus  lost.  While  in  most  cases  the  nitrogen 
can  be  profitably  returned  to  the  soil  in  commercial  fer- 
tilizers it  can  be  even  more  profitably  returned  by  plowing 
under,  every  third  or  fourth  year,  a  luxuriant  growth  of 
cowpeas  or  velvet  beans. 

Commercial  materials  that  may  be  used  as  sources  of 
nitrogen  are  cotton-seed  meal,  dried  blood,  tankage,  ni- 
trate of  soda,  and  sulfate  of  ammonia.  The  first  three  are 
organic  materials.  The  nitrogen  in  these  materials  is  not 
so  readily  soluble  as  that  in  the  mineral  fertilizers,  and 
for  this  reason  the  organic  materials  are  usually  preferred 
on  sandy  soils  that  are  subjected  to  heavy  leaching.  If 
quick  results  are  desired,  the  nitrate  of  soda  or  sulfate  of 
ammonia  should  be  applied. 

The  need  for  phosphoric  acid  in  the  sugar-cane  belt  is 
quite  general  and  as  a  rule  it  is  second  in  importance  to 
nitrogen.  It  is  supplied  in  the  form  of  acid  phosphate. 


SUGAR-CANE  — CLIMATE,  TILLAGE          415 

Most  soils  in  the  cane-belt  are  in  less  need  of  potash  ferti- 
lizers than  of  nitrogenous  or  phosphatic  materials. 

515.  Fertilizers  for  cane  in  Louisiana.  —  Experiments 
at  the  Louisiana  Sugar  Station  have  indicated  that  as 
much  as  48  pounds  of  nitrogen  and  36  pounds  of  phos- 
phoric acid  to  the  acre  can  be  applied  with  profit  in  com- 
mercial fertilizers.     To  supply  the  48  pounds  of  nitrogen 
would  require  either  240  pounds  of  sulfate  of  ammonia, 
340  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda,  343  pounds  of  dried  blood 
containing  14  per  cent  nitrogen  or  685  pounds  of  cotton- 
seed meal.    The  36  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  would  re- 
quire 225  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  containing  16  per 
cent  phosphoric  acid.    A  very  popular  fertilizer  in  the  cane- 
belt  of  Louisiana  is  slaughter-house  tankage  which  con- 
tains from  6  to  10  per  cent  of  nitrogen  and  good  quantities 
of  phosphoric  acid.     It  is  applied  in  quantities  ranging 
from  400  to  1,000  pounds  to  the  acre.     It  is  sometimes 
supplemented  with  100  to  300  pounds  of  acid  phosphate 
to  the  acre.    Very  little  advantage  has  been  secured  from 
the  application  of  potash  fertilizers  to  cane  in  Louisiana. 

516.  Fertilizers  for  cane  in  the  pine-belt.  —  Experi- 
ments conducted  at  the  McNeill  Station  in  southern  Mis- 
sissippi indicate  that  1,000  to  1,500  pounds  to  the  acre 
of  a  fertilizer  composed  of  equal  parts  of  acid  phosphate 
and  cotton-seed  meal  may  be  used  profitably  for  sugar- 
cane.    Where  the  cane  follows  a  leguminous  crop  it  is 
recommended  that  the  amount  of  nitrogen  in  the  fertilizer 
be  reduced  for  the  first  year.     "On  the  stubble  cane  of 
the  year  following  the  supply  of  nitrogen  should  be  in- 
creased by  using  equal  parts  of  meal  and  phosphate  and 
in  case  a  second  year's  stubble  is  grown  it  would  be  well 
to  use  a  mixture  of  two  parts  cotton-seed  meal  and  one 
part  of  acid  phosphate."    The  bulk  of  the  fertilizer  should 


416        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

be  applied  in  the  spring  on  both  sides  of  the  rows  just 
before  the  dirt  is  thrown  back  to  the  cane. 

A  series  of  fertilizer  experiments  with  sugar-cane  con- 
ducted on  poor,  sandy  pine  land  in  southern  Georgia  by 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  gave  results 
which  justified  the  recommendation  of  1,100  pounds  of 
fertilizer  to  the  acre  composed  of 

600  pounds  high-grade  acid  phosphate 

100  pounds  cotton-seed  meal 

300  pounds  nitrate  of  soda 

100  pounds  sulfate  or  muriate  of  potash. 

Where  a  crop  of  velvet  beans  had  been  plowed  under 
the  following  combination  of  fertilizers  gave  best  results: 

1,100  pounds  high-grade  acid  phosphate 
100  pounds  nitrate  of  soda 
100  pounds  muriate  of  potash 


1,300  pounds,  total  to  the  acre. 

The  recommendations  of  the  Florida  Station  with  refer- 
ence to  fertilizing  sugar-cane  are  given  in  the  following 
quotation:1  "On  high  pine  land  a  fertilizer  analyzing 
,  5  per  cent  of  ammonia,  4  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid,  and 
8  per  cent  of  potash,  should  be  applied  at  the  rate  of  600 
to  1,000  pounds  per  acre,  ten  days  before  planting.  The 
ammonia  should  come  from  an  organic  source,  because 
of  the  long  season  required  by  the  crop  for  growing.  If 
the  crop  appears  uneven  and  yellow,  and  shows  an  un- 
thrifty appearance,  it  will  be  advisable  to  give  a  second 
application  of  ammonia  not  later  than  August  1st.  This 
ammonia  should  be  applied  in  the  form  of  nitrate  of  soda 
at  the  rate  of  200  pounds  per  acre  and  broadcasted.  It 
matters  little  in  what  form  the  potash  or  phosphoric  acid 

1  Fla.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  118,  p.  53. 


SUGAR-CANE —  CLIMATE,  TILLAGE          417 

is  applied  because  of  the  gross  feeding  tendencies  of  the 
sugar-cane  plant.  It  is,  however,  conceded  by  some 
growers  that  a  better  grade  of  sirup  will  be  produced  by 
using  sulfate  of  potash,  instead  of  muriate  of  potash  or 
kainit.  This,  however,  is  still  an  open  question." 

Many  farmers,  particularly  in  the  pine-belt,  make  rather 
liberal  use  of  stable  manure  in  fertilizing  sugar-cane. 
While  this  greatly  increases  the  yield  it  is  apt  to  give  the 
sirup  a  dark  color  and  inferior  flavor. 

TILLAGE  PRACTICES 

517.  Preparation  of  the  land.  —  Soil  intended  for 
sugar-cane  should  be  plowed  as  long  in  advance  of  plant- 
ing time  as  the  previous  crop  will  permit.  In  Louisiana 
the  land  is  usually  plowed  in  August  or  September,  es- 
pecially if  the  previous  crops  were  corn  with  cowpeas. 
In  most  cases  the  ordinary  mold-board  plow  is  used,  al- 
though the  turning  under  of  green-manure  crops  can  be 
better  accomplished  with  a  disk  plow.  In  three  to  five 
weeks  after  plowing  the  land  is  bedded  for  planting.  This 
consists  of  forming  ridges  or  high  beds  usually  six  feet 
wide  although  "ridged  rows,  five  feet  apart,  are  probably 
productive  of  the  best  results."1  As  the  cane  fields  are 
flat  and  wet  the  ridges  are  necessary  to  facilitate  drainage. 
As  an  additional  step  in  draining  the  land  the  water- 
furrows  between  the  ridges  are  deepened  with  a  double 
mold-board  plow.  At  suitable  intervals,  "quarter  drains" 
are  constructed  at  right  angles  to  the  ridges  and  from 
4  to  8  inches  deeper  than  the  water-furrows.  Running 
parallel  with  the  rows,  and  100  to  125  feet  apart,  deep  nar- 
row ditches  are  constructed  into  which  the  "quarter 
drains"  empty. 

i  La.  Sugar  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  129,  p.  32. 


FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

In  the  coastal  pine-belt,  where  the  soils  are  usually  well 
drained  and  likely  to  be  droughty,  the  land  is  thoroughly 
plowed  several  weeks  before  planting  and  is  prepared 
level,  no  ridges  being  formed. 

518.  Time  of  planting.  —  In  practice  the  seed-cane 
is  planted  in  either  fall  or  spring.    In  Louisiana,  southern 
Mississippi  and  in  parts  of  Florida  fall  planting  is  desira- 
ble.    Usually  better  weather  conditions  for  planting  are 
secured  in  the  fall.    Fall  planting  avoids  the  practice  of 
windrowing  or  bedding  the  seed-canes  for  spring  planting. 
Also  fall-planted  canes  sprout  quicker  in  the  spring  and 
fewer  eyes  are  lost  during  the  winter.    In  Louisiana  plant- 
ing begins  in  the  fall  as  soon  as  the  plants  reach  sufficient 
maturity  and  continues  until  the  grinding  season  in  No- 
vember.    The  areas  that  are  not  planted  in  the  fall  are 
planted  in  February  or  March.    Throughout  the  greater 
part  of  the  pine-belt,  sugar-cane  is  planted  chiefly  in  the 
first  half  of  March. 

519.  Method  of  planting.  —  In  planting  sugar-cane 
the  practice  varies  from  planting  whole  cane  to  planting 
a  single  joint  every  fifteen  inches  to  two  feet.    In  the  cane- 
growing  regions  of  the  United  States  the  common  practice 
is  to  plant  the  whole  cane.    There  are  some  planters,  how- 
ever, who  believe  that  the  seed-canes  should  always  be 
cut;  otherwise  the  eyes  that  sprout  first  will  draw  strength 
from  the  unsprouted  eyes  on  the  same  stalk  and  therefore 
either  prevent  their  coming  up  or  cause  them  to  produce 
weak  plants.    The  Louisiana  Station  has  shown  this  belief 
to  be  erroneous.    On  the  other  hand,  cutting  serves  to  in- 
troduce fermentation  and -decay.    If  the  seed-canes  are 
crooked  they  should  be  cut  in  two  or  more  pieces  so  that 
they  will  lie  flat  in  the  furrow. 

In  Louisiana  a  furrow  is  opened  in  the  top  of  each 


SUGAR-CANE  — CLIMATE,  TILLAGE          419 

bed  with  a  double  mold-board  plow.  This  furrow  should 
not  be  as  deep  as  the  water-furrow.  The  whole  cane 
stalks  are  laid  in  the  bottom  of  these  furrows  in  single 
or  double  rows.  This  cane  is  covered  with  soil  to  a 
depth  of  from  three  to  four  inches,  usually  with  a  disk 
cultivator.  As  soon  as  the  crop  has  been  planted  the 
middles  should  be  run  out  with  a  double  mold-board  plow 
and  the  "quarter  drains"  and  ditches  put  in  good  shape 
to  handle  the  heavy  rainfall  of  winter. 

In  the  coastal  pine-belt  planting  is  done  chiefly  in  the 
spring,  from  March  1st  to  20th,  although  fall  planting  is 
becoming  popular  in  some  sections.  At  the  McNeill  Sta- 
tion in  southern  Mississippi  best  results  were  secured  from 
fall  planting.  For  fall  planting  in  southern  Mississippi, 
Ferris  1  recommends  that  the  rows  be  opened  4*/£  or  5 
feet  apart  with  a  middle  buster  or  with  two  furrows  from 
a  turn-plow.  The  seed-cane  should  be  placed  in  these 
furrows  and  covered  with  three  or  four  inches  of  soil.  If 
the  soil  is  dry  at  planting  time  a  heavy  roller  should  follow 
the  covering  of  the  cane  to  cause  the  moisture  to  rise  and 
prevent  the  seed  from  being  destroyed  by  "dry  rot." 

The  cane  that  is  planted  in  the  spring  receives  a  shal- 
lower covering  of  soil  than  that  which  is  planted  in  the  fall. 
Where  it  is  necessary  to  cover  the  canes  deeply  to  protect 
them  from  cold  weather,  part  of  the  soil  should  be  removed 
before  the  young  plants  come  up.  This  can  be  done  by 
running  a  spike-tooth  harrow  over  the  rows  and  parallel 
with  them. 

520.  Keeping  seed-cane  over  winter.  —  Seed-cane  that 

is  to  be  planted  in  the   spring  must  be  harvested  in 

the  fall  before  frost  and  must  be  protected  from  cold 

during  the  winter.     In  Louisiana  this  is  done  by  cutting 

1  Miss.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  129,  p.  4. 


420        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

and  windrowing  the  plants  in  every  other  water-furrow, 
the  tops  being  left  on  the  plants.  The  plants  are  placed 
shingle  fashion  in  the  furrows  so  that  the  tops  and  leaves 
protect  the  stems  underneath.  The  cane  is  then  well 
covered  with  soil  by  means  of  a  turn-plow.  If  necessary 
hoes  are  used  to  complete  the  covering.  In  the  spring 
the  soil  is  partially  removed  and  the  cane  withdrawn, 
usually  with  horses  or  mules  attached  to  suitable  imple- 
ments. 

In  the  pine-belt  the  seed-canes  are  kept  in  beds  that  are 
about  six  feet  wide  and  eight  inches  below  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  The  canes  are  placed  in  these  beds  in  even 
layers,  each  layer  extending  ten  inches  forward  of  the 
previous  one  and  the  tops  thus  covering  the  joints  of  the 
lower  layers.  After  being  filled  the  bed  is  covered  with 
about  two  inches  of  soil.  Special  precautions  must  be 
taken  to  see  that  water  does  not  stand  in  the  bed  at  any 
time;  otherwise  the  eyes  will  be  destroyed  by  fermenta- 
tion. It  is  highly  essential,  however,  that  the  seed-canes 
be  kept  fairly  moist  to  prevent  injury  from  "dry- 
rot." 

The  amount  of  seed-cane  required  to  plant  an  acre 
varies  from  3  to  4J/£  tons,  depending  on  the  method  of 
planting. 

621.  Cultivation.  —  As  soon  as  the  cold  weather  of 
winter  has  passed,  the  surplus  soil  must  be  removed  from 
the  cane  so  as  to  admit  the  warmth  of  spring.  In  Louisiana 
and  southern  Mississippi  this  is  accomplished  by  a  process 
termed  "off-barring,"  which  consists  in  throwing  the  soil 
from  the  sides  of  the  cane  rows  toward  the  middle,  usually 
with  a  two-mule  turn-plow.  The  soil  immediately  over 
the  cane  row  is  then  removed  with  the  exception  of  a  layer 
an  inch,  or  a  little  more,  in  thickness.  This  is  often  done 


SUGAR-CANE  — CLIMATE,  TILLAGE          421 

with  hoes  although  there  is  an  implement  called  the  "scra- 
per" especially  designed  for  doing  this  work,  which  re- 
moves the  soil  more  economically  than  can  be  done  with 
hoes.  This  leaves  the  cane  in  a  narrow,  well-drained  ridge 
which  warms  up  readily  and  causes  the  rapid  germination 
of  the  buds.  When  the  cane  has  come  to  a  stand  the  fer- 
tilizer should  be  applied.  It  is  distributed  along  both 
sides  of  the  row  in  the  off-bar  furrows  and  also  over  the 
row.  The  soil  is  then  returned  to  the  cane  by  means  of 
plows  and  the  middles  are  opened  with  a  double  mold- 
board  plow.  The  subsequent  cultivation  is  effected  usu- 
ally by  means  of  disk  cultivators  which  straddle  the  rows, 
and  are  so  adjusted  as  to  throw  the  soil  toward  the  cane 
at  each  working.  The  middles  are  kept  stirred  by  the  use 
of  special  implements  called  "middle  cultivators."  "Cul- 
tivation should  be  continued  until  the  cane  has  reached 
such  a  height  that  the  mules  and  implements  can  no  long 
pass  through  without  causing  material  injury."1 

When  a  crop  of  stubble  cane  is  grown  the  first  tillage 
in  the  spring  consists  in  loosening  the  soil  with  a  stubble 
digger,  after  the  dried  tops  and  leaves  of  the  preceding 
crop  have  been  burned.  Sometimes  a  "stubble  shaver" 
is  used  to  cut  off,  below  the  surface  of  the  soil,  the 
stubble  on  which  the  upper  eyes  have  been  injured. 
Stubble  cane  is  fertilized  by  applying  the  fertilizer  in 
a  furrow  near  the  line  of  stubble  and  by  covering  it  with 
soil. 

Throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  pine-belt,  the  culti- 
vation of  sugar-cane  is  similar  to  that  of  corn.  The  Flor- 
ida Station  recommends  that  fertilizers  for  sugar-cane  in 
that  State  be  applied  before  planting.  In  this  case,  and 
particularly  when  the  cane  is  planted  in  the  spring,  the 
1  La.  Sugar  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  129,  p.  34. 


422       FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

first  two  or  three  cultivations  may  be  given  with  the  weeder 
or  harrow,  run  in  any  direction  over  the  rows.  Later  cul- 
tivations may  be  given  with  one  or  two-horse  cultivators 
adjusted  to  run  shallow.  Frequent  cultivation  should  be 
given  until  the  cane  is  well  grown. 


CHAPTER  XXXVII 

SUGAR-CANE  —  HARVESTING,    USES,  INSECT 
PESTS  AND  DISEASES 

THE  primary  requisites  in  securing  profits  from  sugar- 
cane production  are  (1)  layge  crops  economically  produced 
and,  (2)  the  proper  handling  of  the  crop  so  as  to  render 
possible  its  manufacture  into  a  product  of  high  quality, 
whether  it  be  sugar  or  sirup.  In  order  that  both  of  these 
requisites  may  be  secured,  the  planter,  in  addition  to 
knowing  how  to  plant,  fertilize,  and  cultivate  the  crop, 
should  have  a  knowledge  of  the  proper  time  and  method 
of  harvesting  the  crop,  and  should  also  be  familiar  with 
such  practical  means  of  preventing  or  reducing  loss  from 
the  insect  pests  and  diseases  of  sugar-cane  as  are  available. 

HARVESTING 

522.  Time  of  harvesting.  —  Sugar-cane  must  be  har- 
vested before  frost.  But  the  longer  the  crop  can  stand 
without  danger  of  frost,  the  higher  will  be  the  sucrose 
content,  which  not  only  increases  the  amount  of  sugar 
or  sirup  secured  but  also  greatly  improves  the  quality 
of  the  product.  When  the  plant  is  grown  for  sugar  the 
proper  stage  of  maturity  for  harvesting  is  indicated  by 
the  browning  of  the  lower  leaves  and  the  loosening  of 
the  leaves  on  the  stalk.  Another  good  rule  in  the  sugar- 
belt  is  to  allow  the  crop  to  stand,  if  practical,  until  the 
fresh  juice  is  thick  enough  to  show  a  test  of  8  degrees  on 
the  Baume  spindle.  In  Louisiana  the  bulk  of  the  crop  is 

423 


424        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

cut  in  November.    That  portion  of  the  crop  that  is  to  be 
used  for  seed-cane  is  cut  earlier  than  the  main  crop. 

In  west  Florida,  stripping  the  blades  from  the  stalks 
begins  the  last  week  in  October;  the  date  is  two  weeks 
later  in  central  Florida.  Cutting  begins  about  November 
15th  in  west  Florida  and  ten  days  later  in  central 
Florida. 

523.  Stripping,    topping,    and    cutting.  —  Harvesting 
consists  in  stripping  the  blades  from  the  stalks,  removing 
the  tops,  and  cutting  the  stajks  at  the  surface  of  the 
ground.     The  cane-knife  is  most  commonly  used  for  this 
purpose.    It  consists  of  a  "flat  piece  of  steel  on  a  suitable 
handle  with  a  slight  hook  on  the  back  for  stripping."    The 
blades  are  removed  by  two  downward  strokes  with  the 
back  of  the  knife;  the  third  stroke  removes  the  top  and  the 
fourth  cuts  the  stalk  at  the  ground.     In  Louisiana  the  en- 
tire operation  is  completed  as  the  workman  proceeds. 

A  simple  cane  stripper  has  been  invented  by  Wm. 
House,  a  farmer  of  Cairo,  Georgia.  It  is  made  of  "two 
pieces  of  thin  steel  about  15  inches  long  by  1  inch  wide 
and  Vie  inch  thick,  bent  and  flared  at  one  end  so  as  to 
slip  over  and  fit  around  the  stalk  of  cane  and  securely 
braded  at  the  other  end  to  a  handle  three  feet  long." 
When  this  stripper  is  pressed  against  the  plant  the  stalk 
slips  into  the  space  made  by  the  curves  in  the  steel  blades. 
The  leaves  are  then  removed  by  one  downward  stroke. 
Other  laborers  follow  with  knives  and  remove  the  tops 
and  cut  the  stalks. 

Machine  cutters  have  been  invented  but  so  far  no  ma- 
chine has  been  a  great  success,  owing  to  the  extreme  diffi- 
culty of  handling  crooked  canes  by  machinery. 

524.  Handling   the    harvested    cane.  —  Immediately 
after  the  cane  is  cut  it  is  started  to  the  mill,  as  fermenta- 


SUGAR-CANE  — HARVESTING,  ENEMIES      425 

tion  soon  begins  which  if  allowed  to  proceed  will  greatly 
diminish  the  sucrose  content.  Hand  labor  is  commonly 
used  in  loading  the  cane  on  the  carriers  that  take  it  to  the 
mill,  although  mechanical  cane  loaders  are  coming  into 
rather  wide  use  in  Louisiana.  These  usually  consist  of 
a  heavy  wagon  on  which  is  mounted  a  swinging  boom. 
From  the  end  of  the  boom  a  grapple  fork,  operated  by  a 
gasoline  engine,  is  lowered  and  lifts  the  cane  from  the  heaps 
on  the  ground  to  the  carts,  or  from  the  carts  into  the 
railroad  cars.  Plantation  railways  are  sometimes  built 
in  the  more  important  cane-growing  regions.  Much 
ingenuity  has  been  exercised  in  the  invention  of  engines, 
trucks,  and  portable  rails  adapted  to  this  purpose. 

Many  patterns  of  unloaders  have  been  invented  and  are 
in  successful  use.  The  problems  of  unloading  the  cane  at 
the  mills  and  transporting  it  to  the  rollers  are  much  simpler 
than  those  involved  in  loading  and  transporting  the  cut 
cane  from  the  plantation  to  the  mill. 

525.  Yields.  —  From  25  to  30  tons  of  stripped  cane 
to  the  acre  is  considered  a  good  yield  in  Louisiana.  The 
average  yield  for  the  state  is  about  21  tons  to  the  acre. 
The  amount  of  sugar  secured  from  a  ton  of  cane  varies 
with  the  sucrose  content  of  the  cane  and  with  the  kind  of 
mill  used  in  grinding.  As  a  rule  a  ton  of  cane  will  yield 
from  150  to  160  pounds  of  sugar,  and  in  addition  5  or  6 
gallons  of  molasses.  In  making  sirup  alone  the  average 
acre  in  the  sugar-belt  of  Louisiana  will  yield  from  500  to 
600  gallons. 

In  the  coastal  pine-belt,  the  average  yield  of  cane  to  the 
acre  is  about  15  tons.  On  reasonably  good  land  a  yield  of 
20  tons  of  plant  cane  and  15  tons  of  stubble  cane  to  the  acre 
may  be  expected.  Throughout  this  region  a  ton  of  cane 
corresponds  roughly  to  20  gallons  of  sirup  at  a  density  of 


426        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

33  degrees  Baume,  or  an  average  yield  of  about  300  gallons 
to  the  acre. 

Certain  Hawaiian  plantations  are  said  to  yield  more  than 
100  tons  of  sugar-cane  and  12  tons  of  sugar  to  the  acre. 

526.  Uses.  —  In  all  countries  where  the  warm  seasons 
are  long,  sugar-cane  is  used  almost  exclusively  for  making 
sugar.    In  regions  where  the  climate  is  sufficiently  warm  to 
grow  sugar-cane,  but  where  frosts  occur  in  the  fall  before 
the  cane  is  fully  mature  the  crop  is  used  for  making  sirup. 

Molasses  is  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar 
from  sugar-cane. 

Blackstrap,  also  made  from  sugar-cane,  is  a  very  inferior 
grade  of  molasses  used  principally  as  a  food  for  live-stock. 

INSECT  PESTS 

527.  The   sugar-cane   borer    (Diatrcea  saccharalis)   is 
unquestionably  the  most  serious  insect  enemy  of  sugar- 
cane with  which  the  Louisiana  planter  has  to  deal.    It  is 
not  generally  distributed  over  the  coastal  pine-belt.    The 
sugar-cane  borer  is  the  caterpillar  of  a  yellowish  moth. 
The  eggs  are  deposited  on  the  foliage  and  subsequently 
hatch  into  small  caterpillars  which  feed  on  the  tender 
foliage  for  a  few  days,  finally  entering  the  stalks  through 
the  buds  or  eyes.    The  remainder  of  the  larval  stage  is 
spent  in  the  stalks.    These  larvae  tunnel  up  and  down  the 
stalks,  stunting  their  growth,  weakening  them  so  that  they 
are  easily  blown  over  by  wind,  reducing  the  sugar  content, 
and  making  easy  the  entrance  of  fungous  diseases. 

Remedial  measures  are  largely  preventive.  In  regions 
where  this  insect  is  found  all  tops  and  leaves  of  sugar-cane 
should  be  burned  as  soon  as  sufficiently  dry.  All  shoots 
that  start  from  the  stubble  of  early  cut  cane  should  be 
destroyed.  Fall  planting  is  recommended  and  only  sound 


SUGAR-CANE  — HARVESTING,  ENEMIES      427 

seed-canes  should  be  used.  Crop  rotation  is  also  advisable 
but  as  sorghum,  Johnson-grass,  and  corn  are  also  attacked, 
the  task  of  starving  the  insects  is  often  difficult. 

528.  The  southern  grass  worm  (Laphygma  frugiperda) 
often  does  considerable  damage  to  sugar-cane.    It  can  be 
controlled  by  spraying  the  crop  with  arsenic  solution,  made 
by  mixing  three  pounds  of  lead  arsenate  paste  or  one  pound 
of  zinc  arsenite  powder  to  fifty  gallons  of  water,  or  by 
dusting  the  plants  with  the  latter,  using  air-slaked  lime  as 
a  filler. 

Another  means  of  destroying  these  worms  is  that  of 
attaching  a  light  piece  of  timber  to  the  cultivator  so  as  to 
jar  the  cane,  causing  the  worms  to  fall  to  the  ground  where 
they  are  covered  with  soil  by  the  cultivator. 

FUNGOUS  DISEASES 

529.  Origin.  —  It  is  only  within  recent  years  that 
fungous  diseases  have  caused  serious  injury  to  the  sugar- 
cane of  the  southern  United  States.    At  least  one  disease, 
the  sugar-cane  root-rot,  has  probably  been  present  in  the 
sugar-belt  of  Louisiana  for  many  years,  but  has  caused 
serious  injury  only  in  abnormal  years.     Recently  other 
diseases,  notably  the  red-rot,  the  rind  disease  and  the 
pineapple  disease  have  been  found  to  be  more  or  less 
prevalent  in  various  parts  of  Louisiana,  the  red-rot  being 
also  prevalent  in  parts  of  the  coastal  pine-belt.    As  these 
are  fungous  diseases  to  which  sugar-cane  is  subject  in  its 
native  home,  it  is  quite  likely  that  they  have  been  intro- 
duced on  seed-canes  from  the  tropics.    The  interchange 
of  seed  among  the  different  planters  in  this  country  has 
served  to  increase  the  spread  of  these  diseases. 

530.  Red-rot  of  sugar-cane.  —  This  disease  is  caused 
by  a  small  fungus,  Colletotrichum  falcatum.     It  is  not 


428        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

easily  recognized  in  a  field  of  growing  cane,  the  disease 
being  almost  entirely  on  the  inside  of  the  stalk.  From  ex- 
ternal appearance  the  cane  may  seem  perfectly  normal. 
When  the  diseased  stems  are  split  open,  irregularly  dis- 
tributed red  streaks  are  noticed  in  the  internal  tissue. 
Usually  these  red  streaks  or  bands  are  found  extending  out 
from  the  nodal  region.1  A  characteristic  of  this  disease  is 
the  occurrence  of  white  spots  surrounded  by  the  red  tissue. 

This  disease  damages  the  cane  by  causing  a  decrease  in 
its  sugar  content,  and  also  by  growing  in  the  stalks  that 
are  to  be  used  for  planting,  killing  the  eyes  and  thus  causing 
a  poor  stand. 

The  treatment  of  the  disease  consists  in  destroying  all 
material  in  the  field  known  to  be  diseased,  and  planting 
seed-canes  that  are  entirely  free  from  the  fungus.  In  fact 
little  damage  is  done  where  perfectly  healthy  canes  are 
planted  each  season. 

531.  The  rind  disease.  —  This  disease  is  caused  by  a 
small  fungus,  Melanconium  sacchari.  The  fruiting  pus- 
tules of  this  disease  develop  "  underneath  the  epidermis 
of  the  rind  tissue"  the  spores  being  finally  pushed  out  to 
the  surface  of  the  stem.  "As  the  spores  are  held  together 
with  a  mucilaginous  substance,  they  ooze  out  in  the  form 
of  long  black  strings  or  hairs." 

The  disease  causes  the  cane  leaves  to  dry  up  prema- 
turely. .  Finally  the  whole  cane  may  become  discolored 
and  brown.  As  the  eyes  are  killed,  diseased  canes  when 
planted  give  little  or  no  germination.  Control  measures 
include  the  use  of  resistant  varieties,  the  cleaning  up  of 
fields,  and  the  dipping  of  the  seed-canes  in  bordeaux  mix- 
ture before  planting. 

1  La.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  120,  p.  8. 

2  La.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  120,  p.  16. 


SUGAR-CANE —  HARVESTING,  ENEMIES      429 

532.  The  pineapple  disease.  —  This  disease  is  caused 
by  a  small  fungus,  Thielaviopsis  ethaceticus,  which  gains 
entrance  to  the  stalks  of  cane  through  wounds  in  the  rind. 
The  fungus  spreads  rapidly,  decomposing  the  inside  tis- 
sues of  the  stalks  and  killing  the  eyes.    While  this  disease 
has  been  observed  in  this  country  only  in  one  or  two 
parishes  in  Louisiana,  in  tropical  countries  it  is  perhaps 
the  most  serious  of  all  sugar-cane  diseases,  and  there  is  a 
strong  likelihood  of  its  developing  rapidly  in  the  sugar- 
belt  of  Louisiana. 

The  fungus  causing  this  disease  grows  in  the  soil  and 
for  this  reason  is  quite  difficult  to  control.  Where  the 
disease  is  at  all  prevalent  the  only  remedy  is  that  of  treat- 
ing the  seed-cane  with  a  fungicide,  as  bordeaux  mixture, 
which  prevents  the  entrance  of  the  fungus  into  the  stalks. 
Planters  on  whose  land  this  disease  has  not  yet  appeared 
should  be  on  guard  against  it  and  take  every  precaution 
to  prevent  its  being  introduced  into  their  locality. 

533.  The  root-rot  disease.  —  This  disease  is  caused 
by  a  mushroom  fungus,  Marasmius  plicalus.    The  fungus 
kills  the  cane  roots  and  often  grows  in  between  the  lower 
leaf-sheaths.    The  disease  is  easily  identified  by  the  white 
strands  of  mycelium  on  or  in  the  stalks.    The  eyes  may  be 
killed  before  germination  or  the  young  plants  may  be 
killed  after  germination. 

Control  measures  consist  of  careful  cultivation,  disinfec- 
tion of  seed-cane  with  bordeaux  mixture,  the  use  of  resist- 
ant varieties,  the  destruction  of  infected  trash,  and  resting 
the  land  from  cane. 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII 
PEANUT  (Arachis  hypogcea) 

THE  peanut,  also  known  as  ground-nut,  goober,  and 
pindar,  forms  the  basis  of  an  important  industry  in  the 
southern  states.  It  is  grown  primarily  for  its  seed  which 
are  used  for  human  consumption  after  being  parched,  or 
as  a  constituent  of  certain  confections.  The  whole  crop 
is  rather  extensively  utilized  as  a  pasture  for  hogs.  The 
vines  make  an  excellent  hay. 

534.  Nativity.  —  The  native  home  of  the  peanut  is 
not  definitely  known.     The  early  investigations  by  De 
Candolle  point  to  Brazil  as  the  natural  habitat  of  this 
plant,  as  six  or  seven  other  closely  allied  species  have  been 
found  there.     Some  botanists  have  claimed  an  African 
origin  for  the  peanut.    Corbett1  points  out  that  "if  Ara- 
chis hypogcea  were  not  of  American  ancestry  it  would  be 
the  only  exception  in  the  group,  which  seems  improbable." 

535.  Distribution.  —  The   peanut   is   grown   success- 
fully only  in  warm  climates  with  long  growing  seasons. 
It  is  grown  extensively  in  the  warmer  portions  of  India, 
Africa,  and  South  America.    The  means  of  its  advent  into 
the  United  States  is  not  clear.     Circumstantial  evidence 
points  to  the  introduction  of  the  peanut  into  this  country 
during  its  early  colonial  history  as  a  result  of  the  early 
slave  trade,  as  it  is  known  that  peanuts  were  used  as  staple 
food  for  the  maintenance  of  slaves  on  the  voyage  across 

1  Peanut  —  L.  C.  Corbett,  Bail.  Cyclo.  of  Am.  Agr.,  Vol.  2,  p.  514. 

430 


PEANUT  431 

the  Atlantic.  Since  their  introduction  into  the  United 
States  they  have  been  grown  principally  in  Virginia  and 
North  Carolina,  certain  parts  of  Tennessee,  Arkansas, 
and  Alabama,  and  in  a  smaller  way  in  almost  all  sections 
of  the  southern  states.  Virginia  and  North  Carolina 
produce  more  than  half  of  the  commercial  crop  of  the 
United  States.  The  rather  general  distribution  of  peanuts 
throughout  the  Southern  States  has  taken  place  since 
1866,  due  partially  to  the  knowledge  of  the  edible  qualities 
of  this  crop  secured  by  the  southern  soldiers  who  fought 
in  Virginia  and  North  Carolina. 

536.  Description.  —  Botanically  the  peanut  belongs 
to  the  family,  Papilionaceae,  or  pea  family.  It  is  an  annual 
with  a  more  or  less  trailing  habit  of  growth.  The  plants 
grow  from  one  to  two  feet  high  and  produce  thick,  angular, 
hairy  stems  with  spreading  branches.  Each  leaf  consists 
of  the  leaf-stem  and  two  pairs  of  leaflets.  No  tendrils 
are  produced.  The  small  yellow  flowers  are  produced 
more  or  less  clustered  in  the  axils  of 'the  leaves.  Two 
kinds  of  flowers  are  produced:  the  male  or  staminate 
flowers  which  are  rather  showy;  and  the  hidden  or  cleis- 
togamous  pistillate  flowers.  "The  stamens  are  monadel- 
phous,  but  the  alternate  ones  are  short."  When  fertili- 
zation takes  place  the  male  flowers  soon  wither  and  fall. 
Immediately  the  short,  thick  peduncles  that  support  the 
female  flowers  begin  to  elongate  and  turn  downward  until 
the  sharp-pointed  ovaries  are  thrust  into  the  soil,  the  re- 
sult being  that  the  development  of  the  pods  takes  place 
underground  entirely. 

The  fruit  of  the  peanut  is  really  not  a  nut,  but  merely 
a  ripened  pod  with  edible  seeds,  the  term  "nut"  having 
been  added  on  account  of  the  flavor  of  the  seeds  which 
is  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  many  true  nuts. 


432        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

The  roots  are  a  yellowish  color  and  are  abundantly 
supplied  with  nodules. 

537.  Composition.  —  All  parts  of  the  peanut  plant 
are  rich  in  nutritive  qualities.  The  kernel  is  especially 
rich  in  oil.  The  meal  or  "cake"  left  after  the  oil  has  been 
extracted  from  the  kernels  is  valuable  for  its  high  protein 
content.  Peanut  hay  is  almost  as  high  in  feeding  nutrients 
as  clover  hay. 

TABLE  40.  FOOD  CONSTITUENTS  IN  DIFFERENT  PARTS  OF  PEANUT 

PLANT1 


IN  WATER-FREE  SUBSTANCE 

WATER 

ASH 

PROTEIN 

FIBER 

NITRO- 
GEN- 
FREE 
EXTRACT 

FAT 

Peanut  kernels  
Peanut  meal 

7.9 
10.7 

31.2 
31.9 

2.8 
5.5 

10.7 
12.1 

29.5 
52.5 

12.6 
10.8 

4.3 
5.9 

22.3 
32.3 

14.2 
27.3 

48.3 
^39.8 

49.2 
8.8 

6.1 
5.0 

Peanut   vines,    cut    be- 
fore blooming  
Peanut  vines,  cut  when 
fruit  was  ripe  

538.  Varieties.  —  There  are  only  five  or  six  distinct 
varieties  of  peanuts  grown  in  the  United  States.  These 
varieties  are  classified  into  large-podded  and  small-podded 
types.  They  are  further  classified  into  bunch  and  running 
varieties.  They  may  be  classified  according  to  the  color 
of  the  skin  (testa)  on  the  seed  into  white  and  red  varieties. 

For  the  production  of  roasted  peanuts  the  large-podded 
varieties  are  preferred.  For  agricultural  purposes  and 
for  the  production  of  forage  the  bunch  habit  is  a  decided 
advantage  as  such  varieties  can  be  more  closely  planted. 
The  leading  varieties  of  peanuts  are  briefly  described  be- 
low: 


Hunt,  "  Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  Amelica,"  p.  235. 


PEANUT  433 

Virginia  Runner.  —  This  is  a  large-podded,  strong- 
growing  variety,  with  creeping  stems  and  heavy  foliage. 
The  procumbent  stems  bear  pods  throughout  their  entire 
length.  The  pods  are  of  light  color  and  usually  do  not 
adhere  well  in  digging.  The  usual  number  of  kernels  to  the 
pod  is  two.  The  customary  weight  to  the  bushel  of  this 
and  other  large-podded  varieties  is  22  pounds. 

Virginia  Bunch  (Fig.  73) .  — •  This  variety  differs  from 
the  Virginia  Runner  in  that  the  vines  are  erect  and  rather 
dwarf,  and  the  pods  are  borne  in  a  cluster  about  the  base 
of  the  plant.  The  pods  adhere  better  to  the  plant  when  it 
is  dug  up  than  do  those  of  the  Virginia  Runner. 

North  Carolina  (Fig.  73).  —  This  variety,  sometimes 
called  the  Wilmington,  and  in  some  localities  known  as 
the  African,  has  procumbent  stems  and  in  that  respect 
resembles  the  Virginia  Runner,  but  the  plant  is  not  so 
large  and  vigorous  and  the  pods  and  kernels  are  smaller. 
The  kernels  are  especially  rich  in  oil.  The  weight  of  a 
bushel  of  North  Carolina  peanuts  is  28  pounds. 

Tennessee  Red  (Fig.  73).  —  This  variety  bears  rather 
long,  slender  pods,  sometimes  five  or  six  peas  being  crowded 
together  in  one  pod.  It  is  an  excellent  variety  for  stock 
feeding  but  the  pods  do  not  sell  well  on  the  market, 
owing  to  the  red  color  of  the  peas.  It  is  therefore  recom- 
mended only  for  stock  feeding. 

Spanish  (Figs.  72,  73).  —  Owing  to  its  early  maturity 
and  excellent  yielding  qualities,  the  Spanish  peanut  has  a 
wider  adaptation  in  the  southern  states  than  any  other 
variety.  It  is  a  small-podded,  upright  growing  variety,  the 
pods  being  borne  in  a  cluster  about  the  base  of  the  plant. 
For  the  production  of  stock  food  the  Spanish  peanut  excels 
all  other  varieties  in  the  United  States.  It  frequently  yields 
50  to  75  bushels  of  nuts  and  two  tons  of  hav  to  the  acre. 


434        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

The  nuts  sprout  more  quickly,  if  left  in  the  soil  after  ma- 
turity, than  do  those  of  the  larger  podded  varieties.  This 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  hull  lies  in  close  contact  with  the 
peas  and  moisture  is  quickly  absorbed.  Spanish  peanuts 
should  be  dug  or  used  as  hog  fee,d  soon  after  ripening.  They 
are  easily  harvested,  as  the  pods  are  clustered  around  the 
base  of  the  plant  and  adhere  exceptionally  well  when  the 


FIG.  72.  —  Spanish  type  of  peanut. 

plant  is  dug  up.  A  bushel  of  Spanish  peanuts  weighs  28 
pounds. 

Dixie  Giant  is  a  variety  of  peanuts  so  called  because  of 
the  large  size  of  the  pods.  As  it  is  not  a  high  yielder  and 
requires  a  long  growing  season  it  is  not  a  popular  variety. 

539.  Improvement  of  varieties.  —  Peanut  plants  differ 
greatly  as  regards  their  prolificacy  just  as^do  the  plants  of 
corn,  wheat,  or  oats.  For  this  reason  it  is  of  paramount 
importance  that  planting  seed  be  selected  from  those  plants 


PEANUT  435 


1!  I 


J    I  I    I  1  ) 

\P  v '     w          '4  •* 

)   )     >   \ 

Ma  )  »  ') 


?      ) 
ill 


FIG.  73.  —  Commercial  types  of  peanuts:  a,'  Virginia  Bunch;  6, 
North  Carolina;  c,  Spanish;  d,  Tennessee  Red. 


436        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

that  produce  a  large  number  of  mature  pods.  In  this  way 
the  plants  of  low  producing  power  are  gradually  eliminated 
and  larger  yields  to  the  acre  are  obtained. 

CULTURE   OF  PEANUTS 

540.  Soil.  —  Peanuts  having  the  highest  market  value 
are  produced  in  light  colored  soils  of  a  sandy  or  loamy 
nature.     Reddish  colored  soils  having  a  high  content  of 
iron  are  likely  to  stain  the  pods,  in  which  case  the  market 
value  of  the  crop  is  reduced.    The  same  is  true  of  very 
dark  soils.    When  the  crop  is  grown  for  agricultural  pur- 
poses, the  staining  of  the  pods  is  of  little  consequence. 
High  yields  are  often  produced  on  clay  soils,  and  when  the 
crop  is  grown  for  hog  pasture,  as  is  often  the  case,  the  se- 
lection of  the  soil  for  the  crop  is  a  less  difficult  matter. 
Peanuts  should  never  be  planted  on  poorly  drained  or 
sour  soils,  or  on  soils  that  easily  become  hard  owing  to  the 
inability  of  the  ovary-bearing  peduncles  or  "pegs"  to 
enter  the  soil. 

541.  Rotations.  —  The  peanut  can  be  made  to  fit  well 
into  a  large  variety  of  rotations,  but  it  should  invariably 
follow  a  clean-cultivated  crop  which  has  been  kept  free 
from  weeds.    Among  the  crops  that  may  precede  peanuts 
in  a  good  rotation  are  corn,  cotton,  sweet  potatoes,  or 
Irish  potatoes.    The  peanut  is  also  admirably  adapted  to 
combination  cropping.     The  most  important  companion 
crop  is  corn  which  is  often  planted  in  alternate  rows  with 
the  peanuts.    In  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  states  pea- 
nuts are  extensively  planted  between  the  rows  of  corn  when 
the  latter  crop  receives  its  last  cultivation.    When  the  corn 
is  harvested  the  peanut  vines  are  pastured  off  by  cattle. 
Hogs  are  then  turned  in  to  utilize  the  remainder  of  the 
crop. 


PEANUT  437 

The  following  rotation  including  peanuts  is  recom- 
mended by  Beattie:1  First  year,  corn  or  cotton  with  cow- 
peas  planted  between  the  rows  at  the  last  cultivation; 
second  year,  peanuts  followed  by  rye  to  be  used  as  a 
winter  pasture,  and  plowed  under  in  the  early  spring; 
third  year,  cowpeas  for  hog  pasture  during  the  autumn 
months. 

542.  Lime    for    peanuts.  —  Lime    is    very    essential, 
especially  for  the  production  of  the  large-podded  varieties 
of  peanuts.     Soils  that  are  deficient  in  lime  produce  a 
large  percentage  of  "pops"  or  unfilled  pods.    As  a  rule, 
the  sandy  soils  in  the  southern  states  are  deficient  in  lime 
and  should  receive  an  application  of  1,000  to  1,500  pounds 
of  lime  to  the  acre  every  four  to  six  years,  if  profitable 
yields  of  peanuts  are  to  be  secured.    The  lime  should  be 
applied  broadcast  and  harrowed  into  the  soil  before  the 
crop  is  planted.    When  a  smaller  amount  of  lime  is  added 
it  is  often  applied  in  the  drill  and  incorporated  with  the 
soil  before  the  crop  is  planted,  or  it  may  be  drilled  on  top 
of  the  row  behind  the  planter,  where  it  will  be  mixed  with 
the  soil  in  cultivation. 

Spanish  peanuts,  although  preferring  a  lime  soil,  can 
be  grown  successfully  on  soils  containing  less  lime  than 
would  be  possible  with  the  large-podded  varieties. 

543.  Fertilizers.  —  The  plant-food  constituents  most 
often  applied  to  peanuts  are  phosphoric  acid  and  potash. 
The  fertilizer  sKould  not  be  highly  nitrogenous,  since  the 
peanut  is  a  legume  drawing  its  nitrogen  largely  from  the 
soil  air.    On  exceptionally  poor  soils,  from  30  to  50  pounds 
of  nitrate  of  soda  should  be  added  to  the  acre  to  promote 
the  early  growth  of  the  plants  before  they  are  able  to  secure 
their  nitrogen  from  the  air.    On  a  soil  that  is  rich  in 

-1  U.  S.  Dep't.  of  Agr.,  Farmer's  Bui.  356,  p.  11. 


438        FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

nitrogen  the  peanuts  produce  vines  at  the  expense  of 
nuts. 

A  fertilizer  for  peanuts  applicable  to  a  large  percentage 
of  the  sandy  and  loamy  soils  of  the  South  is  250  pounds  of 
acid  phosphate  and  50  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  to  the 
acre. 

Where  the  land  will  already  produce  sufficient  vines  for 
a  good  crop,  the  North  Carolina  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture recommends  the  use  of  400  to  500  pounds  to  the  acre 
of  a  fertilizer  consisting  of  one-third  kainit  and  two-thirds 
14  per  cent  acid  phosphate.  This  imixture  would  contain 
9.3  per  cent  of  available  phosphoric  acid  and  4  per  cent  of 
potash.  The  fertilizer  is  usually  applied  in  the  drill  either 
before  or  at  the  time  the  crop  is  planted. 

It  is  the  custom  in  some  sections  of  the  South,  partic- 
ularly in  Virginia,  to  distribute  calcium  sulfate  on  the 
rows  after  the  plants  have  made  considerable  growth. 
This  often  results  in  an  increased  yield  of  nuts,  due  to 
the  stimulating  effect  of  the  calcium  sulfate.  Unless  this 
practice  is  supplemented  by  the  use  of  phosphatic  and 
potassic  fertilizers,  it  will  ultimately  result  in  the  im- 
poverishment of  the  soil,  especially  as  regards  the  phos- 
phoric acid  and  potash. 

544.  The  use  of  stable  manure.  —  Fresh  manure 
should  not  be  used  on  the  land  immediately  before  the 
planting  of  the  peanuts.  It  results  in  the  abnormal  devel- 
opment of  the  tops  and  the  production  of  a  large  percentage 
of  unfilled  pods.  Large  numbers  of  weed  seeds  are  also 
added.  The  best  practice  is  to  apply  the  manure  to  the 
crop  grown  the  previous  season,  or  light  applications  of 
well-rotted  manure  may  be  applied  to  the  land  in  the  fall 
previously  to  planting  the  peanuts.  It  should  be  imme- 
diately plowed  under. 


PEANUT  439 

545.  Preparing    the    seed-bed.  —  All    coarse    litter, 
such  as  corn  stalks  or  cotton  stalks  should  be  removed 
before  the  land  is  plowed.    Clay  soils  on  which  there  is 
considerable  vegetable  matter  are  preferably  plowed  in  the 
fall  for  peanuts.     This  permits  the  vegetable  matter  to 
decompose  before  the  crop  is  planted.    Soils  thus  plowed 
should  be  thoroughly  disked  in  the  spring  before  planting. 

Sandy  or  loamy  soils  are  usually  plowed  in  the  late 
winter  or  early  spring.  It  is  best  that  they  be  plowed  at 
least  a  month  before  planting.  This  permits  the  seed-bed 
to  settle  and  also  hastens  the  germination  of  weed  seeds 
which  can  then  be  easily  and  cheaply  destroyed  by  means 
of  the  harrow  before  planting. 

The  depth  of  plowing  will  depend  somewhat  upon  the 
character  of  the  soil  and  the  time  of  plowing.  In  general, 
clay  soils  should  be  plowed  deeper  than  sands. 

546.  Planting.  —  On  well-drained  soils,  peanuts  should 
be  planted  level.     The  usual  practice  is  to  open  furrows 
30  to  36  inches  apart  in  which  the  fertilizers  are  drilled, 
if  these  materials  are  to  be  used.    The  fertilizers  are  best 
distributed  by  means  of  a  common  fertilizer  distributor. 
They  are  often  distributed  by  hand.    It  is  well  to  have  a 
cultivator  or  some  other  suitable  implement  follow  the 
fertilizer  distributor  in  order  that  the  fertilizers  may  be 
better  mixed  with  the  soil. 

Soils  that  are  not  well  drained  are  usually  ridged  for 
peanuts.  This  is  done  by  means  of  a  small  turn-plow  or 
other  suitable  implement.  The  ridge  is  formed  imme- 
diately over  the  fertilizer  and  should  be  partially  harrowed 
down  or  flattened  by  means  of  a  fine-tooth  harrow  before 
planting.  The  peanuts  may  be  planted  by  hand  or  by 
means  of  a  Community  planter  which  is  not  expensive. 

The   large-podded   varieties   should   be-  hulled   before 


440         FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

planting.  Small-podded  varieties  such  as  the  Spanish 
variety  are  usually  planted  in  the  pod.  When  they  are 
planted  in  the  pod,  germination  may  be  hastened  by 
soaking  the  peanuts  in  water  for  a  few  hours  just  before 
planting.  Approximately  two  bushels  of  unhulled  seed, 
or  one-half  bushel  of  hulled  peanuts,  are  required  to  plant 
an  acre.  The  plants  should  be  left  from  seven  to  twelve 
inches  apart  in  the  row,  the  distance  depending  on  the 
variety.  The  large-podded  varieties  should  have  the 
greater  spacing.  Planting  should  not  be  done  until  the 
soil  has  become  thoroughly  warm  in  the  spring.  Little 
is  to  be  gained  by  planting  peanuts  in  a  cold  soil. 

547. -Cultivation.  —  The  cultivation  of  the  peanut 
crop  may  well  begin  before  the  plants  are  up  by  running 
a  weeder  or  section-harrow  diagonally  across  the  rows. 
After  the  plants  are  well  up,  tillage  by  separate  rows  begins. 
There  is  little  difference  between  the  cultural  methods  for 
peanuts  and  for  such  crops  as  corn,  peas,  and  the  like.  It 
is  especially  important  that  such  implements  be  used  as 
will  keep  the  soil  thoroughly  pulverized  close  to  the  plants. 
This  facilitates  the  entrance  of  the  fruit  stems  or  "pegs" 
into  the  soil.  Cultivators  with  small  points  on  the  side 
next  to  the  row  are  quite  satisfactory  for  this  purpose. 
Hoeing  should  be  done  only  when  necessary  to  keep  down 
weeds  and  grass. 

548.  Harvesting.  —  An  important  use  of  the  peanut 
crop  is  as  a  pasture  for  hogs.  When  used  for  this  purpose 
the  hogs  should  be  allowed  to  harvest  the  crop.  When 
grown  for  the  market,  the  crop  should  be  dug  before  frost. 
The  proper  stage  of  maturity  for  harvesting  is  indicated  by 
the  tendency  of  the  pods  about  the  base  of  the  plant  to 
shed,  and  the  vines  to  turn  yellow. 

Various  methods  of  harvesting  peanuts  for  the  market 


PEANUT  441 

are  practiced.  In  many  cases  the  plants  are  merely 
plowed  from  the  ground  with  a  one-horse  turning  plow 
and  afterwards  separated  from  the  soil  by  hand.  Another, 
and  very  common,  method  is  to  remove  the  mold-board 
from  a  turning  plow  and  run  the  plowshare  under  the  row 
on  each  side  at  a  sufficient  depth  not  to  sever  the  pods  from 
the  vines.  The  side  from  which  the  mold-board  is  removed 
is  kept  next  to  the  row.  The  plants  are  lifted  by  hand  or 
by  means  of  forks,  and  the  dirt  is  carefully  shaken  from 


FIG.  74.  —  Machine  potato  digger  adapted  for  harvesting  peanuts. 

them.  They  are  then  thrown  in  small  piles  to  dry.  The 
potato  digger  may  be  very  satisfactorily  used  in  harvesting 
peanuts  (Fig.  74). 

549.  Stacking.  —  As  soon  as  the  plants  have  suffi- 
ciently dried,  —  a  process  which  requires  about  three  or 
four  hours,  —  they  are  put  in  small  stacks  (Fig.  75) .  Poles 
about  seven  feet  long  are  driven  securely  into  the  ground. 
Around  the  base  of  each  pole  a  few  pieces  of  short  poles  are 
placed  to  keep  the  peanuts  off  the  ground.  The  peanuts 
are  stacked  with  the  vines  out  and  the  nuts  in  next  to  the 
pole.  The  stacks  should  be  made  rather  slender  and  taper- 


442         FIELD  CROPS  FOR  THE  COTTON-BELT 

ing  toward  the  top  to  shed  water.     Each  stack  is  usually 
capped  with  grass  to  protect  the  nuts. 

550.  Picking.  —  Peanuts  should  not  be  picked  from 
the  vines  until  the  pods  have  become  dry  and  the  peas 


FIG.  75.  —  Laborer  building  a  stack  of  peanut  vines,  showing  method 
used.    Completed  stacks  in  background. 

firm.  A  better  grade  of  peanuts  will  be  secured  if  picking 
is  deferred  until  late  autumn.  The  greater  part  of  the 
crop  is  picked  by  hand.  Machines  are  in  use  for  picking 
peanuts.  They  are  profitable  where  the  crop  is  grown 
extensively.  Most  machines  have  a  tendency  to  crack  a 
certain  amount  of  the  pods. 

The  picked  pods  should  not  be  exposed  to  dampness  as 
to  do  so  discolors  them  and  reduces  their  market  value. 


INDEX 


(Numbers  refer  to  pages) 


Acme  harrow,  235. 

jEgilops,  305. 

yEgilops  ovata,  306. 

Alabama  argillacea,  137. 

Alabama  Experiment  Station, 
17,  40,  41,  98,  222, 
228,  244,  254,  270, 
278,  287,  290. 

Alabama,  high  ranking  cotton 
varieties  for,  48. 

Alabama,  high  yielding  varie- 
ties of  wheat  for,  319. 

Alabama,  leading  varieties  of 
corn  for,  183. 

Alfalfa,  2. 

Allen,  J.  B.,  52. 

Allium  vineale,  334. 

Amber  sorghum,  382,  383. 

Andropogon  halepensis,  372. 

Andropogon  sorghum,  372. 

Anthonomus  grandis,  127. 

Arachis  hypogaea,  430. 

Arkansas  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,  288. 

Arkansas,  high  ranking  cotton 
varieties  for,  48. 

Arkansas,  high  yielding  varie- 
ties of  wheat  for,  319. 

Arkansas,  leading  varieties  of 
corn  for,  183. 

Avena  barbata,  273. 

Avena  fatua,  272,  273. 

Avena  sativa,  272. 

Avena  sterilis,  272,  273. 


Ball,  Carleton  R.,  373,  377,  381. 
Balls,  W.,  8,  9,- 28. 
Barley,  climate,  351. 

composition,  349. 

description,  347. 

enemies,  353. 

fertilizers,  351. 

harvesting,  352. 

nativity,  347. 

rotations,  351. 

soils,  351. 

sowing,  351. 

types,  350. 

value  in  cotton-belt,  3. 

value  in  United  States,  3. 
"Benders"  cotton,  33. 
Bermuda-grass,  2. 
Blissus  leucopterus,  268,  337. 
Bromus  secalinus,  334. 
Broom-corn,  374,  395. 

culture  of,  398. 

harvesting,  399. 
Buckwheat,    value    in    United 

States,  3. 

Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  28, 
141,  143,  144,  282,  298, 
319. 

Bureau  of  Soils,  United  States 
Department    of    Agri- 
culture, 67,  222. 
Burgess,  J.  L.,  327. 

Calandra  oryza,  269. 
Catch-crops,  2. 


443 


444 


INDEX 


Cecidomyia  destructor,  336. 
Chalcodermis  aeneus,  139. 
Chess  or  cheat,  334. 
Chinch  bugs,  268,  337,  346. 
Classification  of  field  crops,  1 . 
by  use,  1. 
for    the    study    of    cropping 

systems,  2. 

Clavicepa  purpurea,  346. 
Cleveland,  J.  R.,  52. 
Climate,  factors  of,  213. 
Club  wheat,  315. 
Cockle,  334,  335. 
Colletotrichum  falcatum,  427. 
Colorado    Experiment    Station, 

151. 

Connecticut  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station,  206, 
207. 

Cook,  J.  R.,  52. 
Corbett,  L.  C.,  430. 
Corn,  barren  plants,  190. 
breeding,  187. 
breeding  plot,  cultivation  of, 

197. 

breeding  plot,  harvesting,  198. 
breeding    plot,    selection    of, 

196. 
breeding,  significance  of  type 

in,  187. 

broad  breeding  defined,  204. 
bud-worms,  265. 
characters,    transmission    of, 

204. 

checking,  240. 
classification,  177. 
climate,  influence  upon  habit 

of  growth,  216. 
climatic  adaptations,  213. 
close  breeding  defined,  204. 
composition,  breeding  for,  200. 
composition,  objects  of  breed- 
ing for,  202. 
composition  of,  161. 


Corn  (Continued). 

composition,  other  effects  of 
breeding  for,  201. 

continuous  culture,  effect  of, 
217. 

covering  rubbish,  232. 

cribs,  261. 

cropping-systems  for,  217. 

cross-bred    seed,    method    of 
producing,  207. 

crossing   varieties,    value   of, 
207. 

cultivation,     importance     of, 

245. 

by  separate  rows,  246. 
depth    and    frequency    of, 

247. 

late   cultivation,   value  of, 
247. 

cultivators,  kinds,  247. 

cutting  and  shocking,  255. 

cutting,  hand  methods,  256. 

cut-worms,  266. 

description  of,  150. 

detasseling,  197. 

dominant  qualities  in,  206. 

double  fertilization,  169. 

drilling,  239. 

ear,  158. 

ear,  development  of,  171. 

ears,  harvesting,  255. 

ears,  initial  choice  of,  195. 

ear-worms,  268. 

enemies,  animal,  264. 

fertilization,  168. 

fertilizing   constituents,   rela- 
tive importance  of,  225. 

fertilizer  formulas  for,  227. 

fertilizers  for,  223. 

fertilizers,  method  of  apply- 
ing, 226. 

fertilizers,  principles  underly- 
ing use  of,  228. 

fertilizers,  when  to  apply,  226. 


INDEX 


445 


Corn  (Continued). 
flower,  157. 

flowers,  pistillate,  158. 
fungous  diseases,  270. 
green-manures  for,  222. 
growing  season  for,  215. 
growth,  165. 

factors  of,  166. 
harvesting,  cost  of,  257. 

effect  on  yield,  253. 

methods  of,  252.      X"-. 

time  of,  251. 

harvesting  machinery,  258. 
high  ears,  breeding  for,  200. 
husking,  260. 

hybridization,  objects  of,  203. 
improving,  methods  of,  192. 
inbreeding  defined,  204. 
inbreeding,  effects  of,  206. 
insect  enemies,  causes,  265. 
interculture,  objects  of,  245. 
kernels,  159. 
leaf  surface,  163. 
leaf  surface",  figuring,   163. 
leaves,  156. 

leaves,  growth  of,  167. 
lime  for,  222. 
listing,  240. 

low  ears,  breeding  for,  200. 
low  yield  in  cotton-belt,  rea- 
sons for,  238. 
manures  for,  221. 
mass  selection,  193. 

value  of,  193. 
measuring  in  crib,  263. 
modification  of  soils  for,  212. 
narrow  breeding  defined,  204. 
nativity,  173. 
origin,  biological,  174. 
pedigree  selection,  194. 
physiology  of,  161. 
plants,    degrees    of    relation- 
ship among,  204, 
planting,  238. 


Corn  (Continued). 

depth  of,  242. 

methods  of,  239. 

time  of,  241.      - 
plant-food  removed  by,  223. 
plowed    land,    treatment    of, 

234. 

plowing,  depth  of,  232. 
plowing,  time  of,  231. 
preparation    of   plowed    land 

for,  234. 

rainfall,  influence  of,  214. 
recessive  qualities  in,  206. 
reproduction,  168. 
ridging  land  for,  236. 
roots,  adventitious,  153. 
roots,  growth  of,  166. 
roots,  primary,  151. 
roots,  structure  of,  153. 
roots,  temporary,  150. 
root-system,  150. 
rotation,  place  in,  219. 
rotations  suggested  for,  220. 
seed-bed,  preparation  of,  230. 
seed,  testing,  238. 
selection,  192. 
shocking,  258.. 
shredding,  261. 
shrinkage  in  storage,  262. 
smut,  271. 
soil  adaptations,  211. 
soils  and  fertilizers,  224. 
soils  not  adapted  to,  212. 
soil  type  and   crop   variety, 

213. 
southern  varieties,  defects  in, 

190.    , 
spacing,  244. 
stalks,  methods  of  destroying, 

230. 

stand,  importance  of,  243. 
stems,  153. 
stems,  growth  of,  167. 
stems,  structure  of,  154. 


446 


INDEX 


Corn  (Continued) 
storing,  261. 
sub-soiling  for,  233. 
suckering,  tendency  to,  191. 
sunshine,  influence  of,  214. 
temperature,  influence  of,  215. 
tillers,  156. 

value  in  cotton-belt,  3. 
value  in  United  States,  3. 
varieties,  182. 

varieties,  discussion  of,  185. 
water,  amount  required,  165. 
water  requirements,  163. 
wide  beds  for,  237. 
Vire-worms,  267. 
yields  of  forage  by  different 
methods  of  harvesting, 
254. 

Cotton,  description  of,  8. 
acclimatization  of,  66. 
acid  phosphate  for,  86. 
air  cavities,  14. 
Amarillo  loam  and  silty  clay 

for,  76. 
Appalachian  province,  cotton 

soils  of,  73. 
bales,  care  of,  121. 
bales,  size  of,  120. 
baling,  120. 
Big-boll  type,  45. 
bolls,  16. 

number  of,  17. 
branches,  10. 

fruiting  branches,  12. 

vegetative  branches,  12. 
breeding,  53. 

need  of,  53. 

reasons  for,  53. 
broadcast  tillage  for,  112. 
"buck  shot"  land  for,  76. 
Cahaba  fine  sandy  loam  for, 

76. 

characters     that     determine 
quality,  56. 


Cotton  (Continued). 

color  and  cleanliness  of  fi- 
ber, 57. 

length  of  fiber,  56. 
strength  of  fiber,  57. 
uniformity  of  fiber,  56. 

Clarksville  soils  for,  74. 

climatic  adaptations  of,  76. 

cluster  type,  41. 

Coastal  Plain  Province,  cotton 
soils  of,  69. 

commercial  fertilizers  for,  83. 

commercial  grades,  classifica- 
tion of,  121. 

composition  of,  22. 

composts  for,  95. 

compressing,  121. 

Congaree  loam  for,  76. 

constituents  of,  23. 

cotton-seed       meal       versus 
cotton-seed  for,  84. 

Crawford  stony  clay  for,  76. 

crossing,  method  of,  64. 

cultivation,  110,  113,  114. 

Decatur  clay  loam  for,  74. 

DeKalb  soils  for,  73. 

diseases  of,  141. 

drainage  for,  102. 

Durant  fine  sandy  loam  for, 
72. 

egg-cells,  28. 

embryo,  29. 

environment,  influence  of,  62. 

fall  plowing  for,  102. 

Fayetteville  fine  sandy  loam 
for,  73. 

fertility  removed  by,  81. 

fertilization,  28. 

fertilizer  formulas  for,  93. 

fertilizer  needs,  as  judged  by 
appearance  of  plants,  91. 

fertilizer  test  for,  90. 

fertilizers,  nitrogen-supplying 
materials  for,  83. 


INDEX 


447 


Cotton  (Continued). 

fertilizers,  method  of  apply- 
ing for,  92. 
time  of  applying  for,  92. 

fixation  of  hybrids,  63. 

flowers,  16. 

forming  the  ridges  for,  107. 

ginning,  118. 

ginning    cotton    from    select 
plants,  59. 

gins,  type  of,  118. 

Gossypium,  30. 

Gossypium  arboreum,  32,  37. 

Gossypium  barbadense,  33,  35. 

Gossypium  herbaceum,  31. 

Gossypium  hirsutum,  31,  32, 
33. 

Gossypium  Kirkii,  33. 

Gossypium    obtusifolium,  32, 
36. 

Gossypium    peruvianum,    32, 
36. 

Gossypium  vitifolium,  36. 

grades,  122. 

grades,  values  of,  124. 

green-manures  for,  96. 

Greenville  soil  series  for,  70. 

growing  season,  length  of,  77. 

guard-cells,  functions  of,  26. 

Hagerstown  loam  for,  74. 

harrowing  for,  105. 

harvesting,  117. 

heavy  seed,  advantages  of,  108. 

high  ranking  varieties,  48. 

Houston  soils  for,  71. 

hybridization  of,  62. 

hybridization  versus  selection, 
65. 

hybridizing,  reasons  for,  63. 

improvement  by  selection,  58. 

insect  enemies  of,  127. 

intermediate  varieties,  46. 

Kalmia  fine  sandy  loam  for, 
76. 


Cotton  (Continued). 

King  type,  44. 

late  tillage,  value  of,  115. 

leaves,  12. 

functions  of,  14. 

limestone    valleys    and    up- 
lands, soils  of,  74. 

lint,  18. 

length  and  strength  of,  19. 

loessial  region,  cotton  soils  of, 
74. 

long-limbed  type,  46. 

long-staple   upland   varieties, 
46. 

Louisa  soil  series  for,  73. 

maintenance  of  fertility   for, 
82. 

making  second  generation  se- 
lections, 61. 

Memphis  silt  loam  for,  75. 

methods  of  improving,  58. 

Miller  soils  for,  75. 

multiplication  plot,  61. 

nature  of  hybrids,  63. 

Norfolk  soils  for,  69. 

numbering  second  generation 
selections,  61. 

nutrition,  23. 

absorption  of  food,  23. 
carbon,  taking  up  of,  24. 
necessary  energy,  25. 

Ocklocknee  fine  sandy   loam 
for,  76. 

Orangeburg  soils  for,  70. 

organic  matter  for,  96. 

peduncles,  15. 

phosphatic  fertilizers  for,  86. 

physiology  of,  21. 

picking,  117. 

picking  machines,  117. 

planting,  methods  of,  110. 

planting,  time  of,  108. 

plants,  distance  between,  116. 

plowing  for,  depth  of,  104. 


448 


INDEX 


Cotton  (Continued). 

pollen-grains,  28. 

potash  fertilizers  check  rust,  89. 

potassic  fertilizers  for,  88. 

protoplasm  of,  21. 

qualities  associated  with  high 
yield,  55. 

qualities  sought  tor,  54. 

rainfall,  amount  and  distribu- 
tion, 77. 

raw  rock  phosphate  for,  87. 

reproduction,  27. 

reproductive  organs,  27. 

ridging  versus  level  prepara- 
tion for,  106. 

Rio  Grande  type,  43. 

River  Flood  Plains  Province, 
soils  of,  75. 

root-hairs,  9. 

roots,  function  of,  10. 

roots,  primary,  8. 

roots,  secondary,  9. 

roots,  types  of,  8. 

root-system,  8. 

rotations  for,  99. 

rows,  distance  between,  115. 

Ruston  fine  sandy  loam  for,  71. 

seed,  18. 

quantity  of,  109. 
structure  of,  18. 

seed-bed,  preparation  of,  101. 

selecting  best  progenies,  60. 

selection  of  foundation  stock, 
58. 

semi-cluster  type,  42. 

sharkey  clay  for,  76. 

skeleton,  21. 
functions  of,  21. 

sodium  nitrate  versus  cotton- 
seed meal  for,  83. 

soils,  classification  of,  68. 

soils,  need  of  for  nitrogen,  85. 

soils,  need  of  for  phosphdric 
acid,  88. 


Cotton  (Continued). 

soils,  need  of  for  potash,  89. 
soil  types  for,  67. 
species,  30. 

number  of,  31. 

classification  of,  31. 

American    upland     cotton, 
33. 

Sea  Island  cotton,  35. 

Peruvian  cotton,  36. 

Indian  cotton,  36. 

Bengal  cotton,  37. 
spring  plowing  for,  104. 
stable  manure  for,  94. 
staple,  125. 
stem,  11. 
stomata,  26. 
storm  resistance,  15. 
structure  of,  21. 
subsoiling  for,  105. 
sunshine  for,  79. 
Susquehanna  fine  sandy  loam 

for,  71. 

temperature  for,  79. 
testing  transmitting  power,  60. 
Tifton  sandy  loam  for,  70. 
tillage  by  separate  rows,  112. 
tillage  for,  101. 
tillage,  frequency  of,  114. 
Trinity  clay  for,  75. 
value  in  cotton-belt,  3. 
value  in  United  States,  3. 
valuing,  points  in,  122. 
varieties,  classification  of,  39. 

description  of,  50. 

influence  of  soil  and  climate 
on,  39. 

origin  of,  38. 

stability  of,  39. 
variety  test,  54. 
vascular  system,  14. 
Vernon  soils  for,  76. 
Victoria  soils  for,  72. 
water,  giving  off  of,  26. 


INDEX 


449 


Cotton  (Continued). 

well-defined    ideal    necessary, 

57. 
Cotton  anthracnose,  cause,  147. 

occurrence  of,  146. 

remedies,  147. 

symptoms,  147. 
Cotton-belt  states,  rank  of,  4. 
Cotton  boll-worm,  134. 

damage,  135. 

description  of,  134. 

food  plants,  135. 

life  history,  134. 

means  of  control,  136. 
Cotton  leaf-louse,  138. 
Cotton  leaf -worm,  137. 

damage,  138. 

life  history  and  habits,  137. 

means  of  control,  138. 
Cotton  red-spider,  139. 
Cotton  root-rot,  143. 
1  cause,  144. 

remedies,  144. 

symptoms,  144. 
Cotton-wilt,  141. 

remedies,  142. 

symptoms,  142. 
Cover  crops,  2. 
Cowpea  pod-weevil,  139. 
Crimson  clover,  2. 
Crop  rotation  and  soil  fertility, 

99. 
Cultivated  crops,  2. 

Dent  corn,  180. 

DeVries,  Hugo,  190,  198,  204. 

Diabrotica  12-punctata,  265. 

Diatraea  saccharalis,  426. 

Disk  harrow,  234. 

Dondlinger,  P.  T.,  305. 

Dry    beans,    value    in    United 

States,  3. 
Dry    peas,     value    in    United 

States,  3. 


Duggar,  J.  F.,  19,  31,  40/41,  85, 
90,  118,  228,  237,  276, 
325,  329,  355,  409. 

Durra,  374,  390. 

East,  E.  M.,  207. 
Einkorn,  315. 
Elateridse,  267. 
Emmer,  315. 
Euchlaena  mexicana,  174. 
Ergot,  346. 

Feterita,  393. 

Field  crops,  definition  of,  1. 
importance    in    the    cotton- 
belt,  5. 

value  in  cotton-belt,  3. 
value  in  United  States,  3. 
Field  garlic,  334,  335. 
Flax    seed,     value    in    United 

States,  3. 
Flint  corn,  179. 

Florida     Agricultural     Experi- 
ment Station,  253,  416. 
Florida,    high    yielding    varie- 
ties of  wheat  for,  319. 
Furman,  Farish,  95. 

Gama  grass,  174, 175. 

Georgia  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,  40,  94, 
100,  244,  292. 

Georgia,  high  ranking  cotton 
varieties  for,  49. 

Georgia,  high  yielding  varie- 
ties of  wheat  for,  319. 

Georgia,  leading  varieties  of 
corn  for,  183. 

Glomerella  gossypii,  146. 

Gooseneck  sorghum,  382,  383. 

Grain  crops,  2. 

Grain  moths,  269. 

Grain  sorghums,  389. 
belt,  389. 


450 


INDEX 


Grain  sorghums  (Continued). 

cultivation,  398. 

culture,  397. 

groups,  390. 

harvesting,  398. 
Graminese,  174. 
Grass  crops,  2. 
Great     Plains     region,     cotton 

soils  of,  76. 
Green,  J.  R.,  22. 
Green-bugs,  301. 
Green-manure  crops,  2,  97. 
Green-manures   and   the   nitro- 
gen supply,  98. 

Green-manures  and  the  supply 
of  organic  matter,  98. 

Hackel,  Edward,  373. 
Halligan,  J.  E.,  93,  227. 
Hawkins,  W.  B.,  51. 
Hay  and  forage,  value  in  United 

States,  3. 

Heliothis  obsoleta,  134,  268. 
Hessian  fly,  328,  336,  346. 
Heterodera  radicicola,  145. 
Hinds,  W.  E.,  134,  270. 
Honey  sorghum,  384. 
Hopkins,  C.  G.,  200. 
Hordeae,  306. 
Hordeum  nudum,  350. 
Hordeum  sativum  distichon,  350. 
Hordeum  sativum  hexastichon, 

350. 

Hordeum  spontaneum,  347. 
Horticultural    crops,    definition 

of,  1. 
Hunt,  T.  F.,  176,  216,  276,  332, 

432. 

Hunter,'  W.  D.,  129. 
Hutchinson,  W.  L.,  228. 

Illinois  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,  87,  189, 
200,  201,  202,  207,  217, 
218,  221. 


Interculturc,  objects  of,  110. 
Iowa   Agricultural    Experiment 
Station,  263. 

Jackson,  T.  W.,  50. 
Japanese  sugar-cane,  410. 

Kafir,  373,  374,  390. 

Kafir  and  milo,  value  in  United 

States,  3. 
value  in  cotton-belt,  3. 

Kansas  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  375. 

Kentucky  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,  326. 

Kentucky  blue-grass,  2. 

King,  T.  J.,  51. 

King,  W.  H.,  286. 

Kowliang,  374,  395. 

Laphygma  frugiperda,  427. 

Layton,  R.  D.,  51. 

Learning,  J.  L.,  194. 

Louisiana  Agricultural  Exper- 
iment Station,  40,  219, 
407,  408,  417,  421,  428. 

Louisiana,  high  ranking  cotton 
varieties  for,  49. 

Louisiana,  high  yielding  varie- 
ties of  wheat  for,  320. 

Louisiana,  leading  varieties  of 
corn  for,  183. 

Lychnis  Githago,  334. 

Mallow  family,  30. 
Marasmius  plicatus,  429. 
Maryland  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,  87. 
Maydeae,  174. 
Mebane,  A.  D.,  52. 
Meeker  harrow,  235. 
Melanconium  sacchari,  428. 
Mendel,  Gregor,  204. 
Mendel's  law,  204. 


INDEX 


451 


Mexican  cotton  boll-weevil,  127. 
damage  caused  by,  130. 
dissemination  of,  129. 
food  of,  129. 
hibernation  of,  130. 
life    history    and    habits    of, 

128. 
means  of  control,  131. 

destroy  cotton  stalks,  131. 
destroy  hibernating  places, 

132. 
make  provision  for  an  early 

crop,  133. 
proper    spacing    of   plants, 

133. 

Michigan    Agricultural   Experi- 
ment Station,  151,  252., 
Milo,  373,  374,  392. 
Minnesota  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,  305. 
Mississippi  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,  192,  228, 
253,  419. 
Mississippi,  high  ranking  cotton 

varieties  for,  49. 
Mississippi,  high  yielding  vari- 
eties of  wheat  for,  320. 
Mississippi,  leading  varieties  of 

corn  for,  184. 
Montgomery,  E.  G.,  159,   177, 

206,  381,  400. 
Mosaic  disease,  148. 
cause,  148. 
occurrence  of,  148. 
remedies,  149. 
symptoms,  149. 

Nebraska  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,  206. 

Neocosmospora  vasinfecta,  141. 

New  Jersey  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,  206. 

New  York  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,  15U 


Noctuidae,  266. 

Non-saccharine  sorghum,  638. 

North  Carolina  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station,  191, 
325. 

North  Carolina,  Coastal  Plains 
Station,  high  ranking 
cotton  varieties  for,  49. 

North  Carolina  Department  of 
Agriculture,  220,  266, 
268,  327,  438. 

North  Carolina,  high  yielding 
varieties  of  wheat  for, 
320. 

North  Carolina,  leading  varieties 
of  corn  for,  184. 

North  Carolina,  Raleigh  Station, 
high  ranking  cotton  va- 
rieties, for,  49. 

North  Dakota  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station,  151. 

Norton,  W.  A.,  50. 

Oats,  272. 

Beardless  Red,  281. 

bleached  oats,  298. 

Burt  oats,  279. 

care  of,  293. 

classification,  277. 

classification,  botanical,  272. 

climate,  285. 

clipping,  275. 

composition,  275. 

cutting,  time  of,  296. 

elementary  species,    isolation 

of,  283. 

fertilizers,  286. 
grades,  298. 
grain,  as  food,  294. 
grain,  description  of,  275. 
harvesting,  296. 
hay,  94. 

hot-water  treatment,  303. 
hybridization,  283. 


452 


INDEX 


Oats  (Continued). 

improvement,    by    hybridiza- 
tion, 283. 

improvement,  need  of,  281. 

improvement  of  varieties,  281. 

insect  enemies,  301. 

introduction     of    new    seed, 
281. 

manures,  286. 

marketing,  298. 

origin,  272. 

panicle,  274. 

plant,  description  of,  273. 

pollination,  275. 

Red  Rust-proof,  278. 

rotation  for,  288. 

rust,  301. 

seed-bed,  preparation  of,  289. 

seeding,  methods  of,  290. 

seeding,  open  furrow  method, 
291. 

seeding,  rate  of,  292. 

seeding,  time  of,  298. 

seed-plot,  282. 

selection,  mechanical,  282. 

shocking,  296. 

smut,  302. 

soils,  285. 

spikelets,  274. 

stacking,  297. 

storing,  297. 

straw,  294. 

structure    and     composition, 
273. 

thrashing,  297. 

Turf  oats,  280. 

uses  of,  294. 

value  in  cotton-belt,  3. 

value  in  United  States,  3. 

varieties  in  cotton-belt,  277. 
Ohio    Agricultural    Experiment 

Station,  87,  221. 
Oklahoma  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,  328,  329. 


Oklahoma,  high  ranking  cotton 
varieties  for,  49. 

Oklahoma,  high  yielding  vari- 
eties of  wheat  for,  320. 

Orange  sorghum,  382. 

Oryza  sativa,  354. 

Osmosis,  11. 

Ozonium  omnivorum,  143. 

Peanut,  430. 

composition,  432. 

cultivation,  440. 

culture,  436. 

distribution,  430. 

fertilizers,  437. 

harvesting,  440. 

improvement,  434. 

lime  for,  437. 

nativity,  430. 

picking,  442. 

planting,  439. 

rotations,  436. 

seed-bed,  preparation  of,  439. 
soil,  436. 

stable  manure  for,  438. 

stacking,  441. 

value  in  cotton-belt,  3. 

value  in  United  States,  3. 

varieties,  432. 

Pennsylvania  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station,  87, 
221. 

Phacelotheca  diplospora,  388. 
Phacelotheca  reiliana,  388. 
Pineapple  disease,  429. 
Piper,  C.  V.,  372. 
Piricularia  oryza,  371. 
Plodia  interpunctella,  269. 
Plumb,  C.  S.,  263. 
Pod  corn,  178. 
Polish  wheat,  317. 
Pop  corn,  178. 

Potatoes,  value  in  United 
States,  3. 


INDEX 


453 


Poulard  wheat,  316. 
Puccinia  coronata,  301. 
Puccinia  graminis,  337. 
Puccinia  graminis  avena,  301. 
Puccinia  rubigo-vera,  337. 
Purdue  University,  161. 

Red  clover,  2. 

Red  rice,  370. 

Red-rot  of  sugar-cane,  427. 

Rice,  cleaning  process,  368. 

cleaned  rice,  368. 

climatic  adaptations,  359. 

composition,  355. 

diseases,  371. 

drainage  for,  362. 

enemies,  370. 

fertilizers,  362. 

growing  sections,  361. 

harvesting,  367. 

insects,  371. 

irrigation,  359. 

irrigation  practice,  365. 

planting,  364. 

preparation,  368. 

products,  classification  of,  369. 

relatives,  354. 

rotations,  362. 

seed-bed,  preparation  of,  363. 

smut,  371. 

soils,  362. 

structure,  355. 

thrashing,  367. 

upland,  358. 

uses,  369. 

value  in  cotton-belt,  3. 

value  in  United  States,  3. 

varieties,  356. 

weeds,  370. 

yield,  367. 
Rice  blast,  371. 
Rice  bran,  369. 
Rice  hulls,  370. 
Rice  polish,  369. 


Rice  water-weevil,  371. 
Ricks,  J.  R.,  192. 
Riley,  James,  194. 
Rind  disease,  428. 
''Rivers"  cotton,  33. 
Root-knot,  145. 

cause,  145. 

occurrence,  145. 

remedy,  146. 

symptoms,  146. 
Root-rot  disease,  429. 
Rowden  Brothers,  52. 
Rublee,  C.  A.,  50. 
Rye,  climate,  343. 

composition,  342. 

culture,  344. 

description,  341. 

enemies,  346. 

fertilizers,  343. 

handling,  345. 

harvesting,  345. 

nativity,  341. 

origin  of,  341. 

rotations,  344. 

rust,  346. 

seed,  344. 

smut,  346. 

soils,  343. 

straw,  345. 

value  in  cotton-belt,  3. 

value  in  United  States,  3. 

varieties,  343. 

Saccharine  sorghums,  381. 
classification,  381.     . 
climate,  384. 
cultivation,  386. 
enemies,  388. 
fertilizers,  385. 
harvesting,  386. 
land,  preparation  of,  385. 
planting,      time,     rate     and 

method,  385. 
sirup,  manufacturing,  387. 


454 


INDEX 


Saccharine  sorghums  (Cont'd). 

soils,  385. 

smut,  388. 

yield,  388. 
Saccharum      officinarum,     384,' 

401. 

Sanderson,  E.  D.,  131. 
Secale  cereale,  341. 
Secale  montanum,  341. 
Shallu,  374,  393. 
Sherman,  Franklin,  265. 
Simpkins,  W.  A.,  51. 
Sitotroga  cerealella,  269. 
Smoothing  harrow,  235. 
Sodium  nitrate,  24. 
Soft  corn,  181. 
Soighums,  372. 

branches,  375. 

breeding,  377. 

classification,  botanical,  373. 

crossing,  377. 

drought  resistance,  376. 

effects  on  soil,  376. 

fertilization,  377. 

grain.   (See  Grain  Sorghums, 
389.) 

origin,  biological,  372. 

origin,  geographical,  373. 

poisoning,  380. 

root-system,  374. 

saccharine.     (See    Saccharine 
Sorghums,  381.) 

tillers,  375. 

value  in  cotton-belt,  3. 

value  in  United  States,  3. 
Sorgo,  373,  374. 

South  Carolina  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station,  9, 
355. 

South   Carolina,    high    ranking 

cotton  varieties  for,  50. 

South   Carolina,    high   yielding 

varieties  of  wheat  for, 

321. 


South  Carolina,   leading  varie- 
ties bf  corn  for,  184. 
Southern  grass  worm,  427. 
Special  harrows,  235. 
Spelt,  315. 

Spring-tooth  harrow,  235. 
Stalks   and   litter,    disposal   of, 

L02. 

Sturtevant,  E.  L.,  177,  182. 
Subsurface  packers,  236. 
Sugar-beets,    value    in    United 

States,  3. 
Sugar-cane,  401. 

climate,  412. 

composition  in  sugar-belt  and 
pine-belt,  408. 

cultivation,  420. 

cutting,  424. 

diseases,  427. 

fertilizers,  414. 

fertilizers  in  Louisiana,  415. 

fertilizers  in  pine-belt,  415. 

handling,  424. 

harvesting,  time  of,  423. 

improvement,  410. 

inflorescence,  403. 

insect  pests,  426. 

juice,   amount   and   distribu- 
tion, 405. 

juice,  composition  of,  406. 

juice,  conditions  affecting  com- 
position, 406. 

land,  preparation  of,  417. 

leaves,  403. 

nativity,  401. 

plant,  description  of,  401. 

planting,  method  of,  418. 

planting,  time  of,  418. 

roots,  403. 

rotations,  413. 

seed-cane,  method  of  keeping, 
419. 

soils,  412. 

stem,  404. 


INDEX 


455 


Sugar-cane  (Continued). 

stem,  structure  of,  405. 

stripping,  424. 

tillage  practices,  417. 

topping,  424. 

uses,  426. 

value  in  cotton-belt,  3. 

value  in  United  States,  3. 

varieties,  409. 

yields,  425. 

Sugar-cane  borer,  426. 
Sumac  sorghum,  382. 
Sweet  corn,  181. 

varieties  of,  186. 
Sweet  potatoes,  value  in  United 
States,  3. 

Tennessee,  high  ranking  cotton 
varieties  for,  50. 

Tennessee,  high  yielding  varie- 
ties of  wheat  for,  321. 

Tennessee,  leading  varieties  of 
corn  for,  184. 

Teosinte,  174. 

Tetrany<^kis  gloveri,  139. 

Texas  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  12,  17,  40,  94, 
227,  397. 

Texas,  high  ranking  cotton  va- 
rieties for,  50. 

Texas,  high  yielding  varieties  of 
wheat  for,  321. 

Texas,  leading  varieties  of  corn 
for,  184. 

Thielaviopsis  ethaceticus,-  429. 

Tilletia  foeteus,  338,  339. 

TiUetia  horrida,  371. 

Timothy,  2. 

Tobacco,  value  in  United  States, 
3. 

Toole,  W.  W.,  51. 

Toxoptera  graminum,  301. 

Trabut,  L.,  273. 

Tripsacum  dactyloides,  174. 


Triticum  monococcum,  315. 
Triticum  polonicum,   306,   314, 

317. 

Triticum  sativum,  305,  306,  314. 
Triticum    sativum,    var.    com- 

pactum,  315. 
Triticum    sativum,    var.    dicoc- 

cum,  315. 
Triticum  sativum,  var.  durum, 

316. 
Triticum  sativum,   var.  spelta, 

315. 
Triticum    sativum,    var.    turgi- 

dum,  316. 
Triticum  sativum,  var.  vulgare, 

315. 
Triticum  spelta,  306. 

United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  22,  55, 109, 
243,  313,  437. 

Ustilago  avenae,  302. 

Ustilago  levis,  302. 

Ustilago  tritici,  338. 

Ustilago  zea,  271. 

Virginia,  leading  varieties  of 
corn  for,  185. 

Watt,  Sir  George,  18,  28/31,  36. 
Webber,  H.  J.,  38,  61,  108. 
Weeder,  235. 
Weevils,  269,  337. 
Wheat,  antiquity  of,  305. 

classification,  botanical,  306. 

climate,  323. 

composition,  313. 

culms,  307. 

cultivating,  331. 

cultural  methods,  327. 

fertilization,  310. 

fertilizers,  326. 

fungous  diseases,  337. 

grain,  description  of,  310. 

harvesting,  331. 


456 


INDEX 


Wheat  (Continued). 
improvement,  322. 
insect  enemies,  336. 
leaves,  308. 
nativity,  305. 
origin,  biological,  305. 
pasturing,  331. 
quality  as  affected  by  methods 

of  handling,  332. 
reproductive  organs,  311. 
roots,  306. 
rotations,  325. 
rust,  337. 

seed-bed,  preparation  of,  327. 
seeding,  date  of,  328. 
seeding  machinery,  330. 
seeding,  methods  of,  329. 
seeding,  rate  of,  329. 
smut,  covered,  339. 
smut,  loose,  338. 
soils,  324. 
spike,  308. 
spikelets,  309. 
structure  of,  306. 
tillering,  307. 
types,  314. 
types,  botanical  classification, 

314. 


Wheat  (Continued). 
value  in  cotton-belt,  3. 
value  in  United  States,  3. 
varieties,  317. 
varieties       for       cotton-belt, 

318. 

weeds,  334. 
Whitney,  Eli,  119. 
Williams,  C.  B.,  20,  191. 
Williamson,  M  elver,  method  of 

corn  cultivation,  249. 
Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,  151. 

Zea  canina,  173,  177,  178. 

Zea  Mays,  150. 

Zea  Mays  amylacea,  181. 

Zea    Mays    amylea-saccharata, 

182. 

Zea  Mays  everata,  178. 
Zea  Mays  hirta,  182. 
Zea  Mays  indentata,  180. 
Zea  Mays  indurata,  179. 
Zea  Mays  japonica,  182. 
Zea  Mays  saccharata,  181. 
Zea  Mays  tunicata,  178. 
Zizania  aquatica,  354. 
Zizania  miliacea,  354. 


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ALL  BOOKS  MAY  BE  RECALLED  AFTER  7  DAYS 

Renewals  and  Recharges  may  be  made  4  days  prior  to  the  due  date. 

Books  may  be  Renewed  by  calling     642-3405. 

DUE  AS  STAMPED  BELOW 


SFP9fi 


FORM  NO.  DD6, 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  BERKELEY 
BERKELEY,  CA  94720 


fc. 


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U.C.  BERKELEY  LIBRAR 


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